Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-55f67697df-px5tt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-05-08T22:31:49.988Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

21 - Male Reproduction: Physiology, Behavior, and Ecology

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 August 2012

By
Michael P. Muehlenbein  and
Richard G. Bribiescas
Edited by
Michael P. Muehlenbein
Michael P. Muehlenbein
Affiliation:
Indiana University, Bloomington
Get access

Summary

INTRODUCTION

Women and men exhibit vast differences in reproductive physiologies, behaviors, and ecologies. The present chapter aims to illustrate these fundamental differences by utilizing recent theoretical and empirical developments in addition to clinical and anthropological data that help clarify the evolutionary bases for human male reproductive functions. We begin with a discussion of the various aspects of male reproductive effort, including the physiology and behaviors associated with seeking, attracting, and choosing mates, competing for and controlling mates, paternal behaviors, and the proximate determinants of spermatogenesis, libido, and erection. For the specific purpose of better understanding male reproductive ecology, we next provide readers with a description of male reproductive physiology, including major aspects of development, endocrinology, and senescence. Testosterone may be synonymous with maleness; however, it may impose a number of costs, including negative energy balance, immunosuppression, and prostate cancer.

A discussion on male reproductive ecology ends our chapter because it draws from our discussions on reproductive effort and physiology. Readers are encouraged to utilize the information presented here to further discussion and research on human male reproduction, both the proximate mechanisms involved in addition to the evolutionary explanations for the ways we function and behave.

Type
Chapter
Information
Human Evolutionary Biology , pp. 351 - 376
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Aakvaag, A., Sand, T., Opstad, P. K., et al. (1978). Hormonal changes in serum in young men during prolonged physical strain. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 39, 283–291.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abbasi, A. A., Prasad, A. S., Rabbani, P., et al. (1980). Experimental zinc deficiency in man. Effect on testicular function. Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine, 96(3), 544–550.Google ScholarPubMed
Alberts, S. C. (1999). Paternal kin discrimination in wild baboons. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, 266, 1501–1506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Albone, E. S. and Shirley, S. G. (1984). Mammalian Semiochemistry: the Investigation of Chemical Signals between Mammals. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.Google Scholar
Alexander, R. D. and Noonan, K. M. (1979). Concealment of ovulation, parental care, and human social evolution. In Evolutionary Biology and Human Social Behavior, Chagnon, N. A. and Irons, W. (eds). North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press, pp. 402–435.Google Scholar
Allen, N. E., Forrest, M. S. and Key, T. J. (2001). The association between polymorphisms in the CYP17 and 5α-reductase (SRD5A2) genes and serum androgen concentrations in men. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention, 10, 185–189.Google ScholarPubMed
Altmann, J. (1990). Primate males go where the females are. Animal Behavior, 39, 193–195.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amundadottir, L. T., Sulem, P., Gudmundsson, J., et al. (2006). A common variant associated with prostate cancer in European and African populations. Nature Genetics, 38, 652–658.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, J. (2003) The role of antiandrogen monotherapy in the treatment of prostate cancer. British Journal of Urology International, 91(5), 455–461.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, K. E., Rosner, W., Khan, M. S., et al. (1987). Diet-hormone interactions: protein/carbohydrate ratio alters reciprocally the plasma levels of testosterone and cortisol and their respective binding globulins in man. Life Science, 40, 1761–1768.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, K. G. (2006). How well does paternity confidence match actual paternity?Current Anthropology, 47, 513–520.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andersson, K. E. and Wagner, G. (1995). Physiology of penile erection. Physiological Review, 75, 191–236.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andolz, P., Bielsa, M. A. and Vila, J. (1999). Evolution of semen quality in north-eastern Spain: a study in 22 759 infertile men over a 36 year period. Human Reproduction, 14, 731–735.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
,Anonymous (1970). Effects of sexual activity on beard growth in man. Nature, 226, 869–870.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Antonios, S. N., Ismail, H. I. and Essa, T. (2000). Hypothalamic origin of reproductive failure in chronic experimental toxoplasmosis. Journal of Egyptian Society of Parasitology, 30(2), 593–599.Google ScholarPubMed
Anway, M. D., Cupp, A. S., Uzumcu, M., et al. (2005). Epigenetic transgenerational actions of endocrine disruptors and male fertility. Science, 3(308), 1466–1469.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Apicella, C. and Marlowe, F. (2004). Perceived mate fidelity and paternal resemblance predict men's investment in children. Evolution and Human Behavior, 25, 371–378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arce, J. C., Souza, M. J., Pescatello, L. S., et al. (1993). Subclinical alterations in hormone and semen profile in athletes. Fertility and Sterility, 59, 398–404.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ardawi, M. S. M. and Newsholme, E. A. (1985). Metabolism in lymphocytes and its importance in the immune response. Essays in Biochemistry, 21, 1–44.Google ScholarPubMed
Argiolas, A. and Melis, M. R. (2003). The neurophysiology of the sexual cycle. Journal of Endocrinological Investment, 26(3), 20–22.Google ScholarPubMed
Attardi, B., Klatt, B., Hoffman, G. E., et al. (1997). Facilitation or inhibition of the estradiol-induced gonadotropin surge in the immature rat by progesterone: regulation of GnRH and LH messenger RNAs and activation of GnRH neurons. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 9, 589–599.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aversa, A., Mazzilli, F., Rossi, T., et al. (2000). Effects of sildenafil (Viagra™) administration on seminal parameters and post-ejaculatory refractory time in normal males. Human Reproduction, 15, 131–134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bagatell, C. J. and Bremner, W. J. (1990). Sperm counts and reproductive hormones in male marathoners and lean controls. Fertility and Sterility, 53, 688–692.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baker, R. R. and Bellis, M. A. (1989). Number of sperm in human ejaculates varies in accordance with sperm competition theory. Animal Behaviour, 37, 867–869.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, R. R. and Bellis, M. A. (1995). Human Sperm Competition. London: Chapman and Hall.Google Scholar
Bambino, T. H. and Hsueh, A. J. (1981). Direct inhibitory effect of glucocorticoids upon testicular luteinizing hormone receptor and steroidogenesis in vivo and in vitro. Endocrinology, 108, 2142–2148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beach, F. A. (1976). Sexual attractivity, proceptivity, and receptivity in female mammals. Hormones and Behavior, 7, 105–138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beall, C. M., Worthman, C. M., Stallings, J., et al. (1992). Salivary testosterone concentration of Aymara men native to 3600 m. Annals of Human Biology, 19, 67–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beamer, W., Bermant, G. and Clegg, M. (1969). Copulatory behavior in the ram, Ovis aries, II: factors affecting copulatory satiety. Animal Behavior, 17, 706–711.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Becker, S. and Berhane, K. (1997). A meta-analysis of 61 sperm count studies revisited. Fertility and Sterility, 67, 1103–1108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bentley, G. R., Harrigan, A. M., Campbell, B., et al. (1993). Seasonal effects on salivary testosterone levels among Lese males of the Ituri Forest, Zaire. American Journal of Human Biology, 5, 711–717.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beranova, M., Oliveira, L. M. B., Bédécarrats, G. Y., et al. (2001). Prevalence, phenotypic spectrum, and modes of inheritance of gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor mutations in idiopathic hypogonadotropic hyprogonadism. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 86, 1580–1588.Google Scholar
Bercovitch, F. B. (2001). Reproductive ecology of Old World monkeys. In Reproductive Ecology and Human Evolution, Ellison, P. T. (ed.). New York: Aldine de Gruyter, pp. 369–396.Google Scholar
Bergendahl, M., Perheentupa, A. and Huhtaniemi, I. (1991). Starvation-induced suppression of pituitary-testicular function in rats is reversed by pulsatile gonadotropin-releasing hormone substitution. Biology of Reproduction, 44, 413–419.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bergendahl, M., Aloi, J. A., Iranmanesh, A., et al. (1998). Fasting suppresses pulsatile luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion and enhances orderliness of LH release in young but not older men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 83, 1967–1975.Google Scholar
Berger, K., Souza, H., Brito, V. N., et al. (2005). Clinical and hormonal features of selective follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) deficiency due to FSH beta-subunit gene mutations in both sexes. Fertility and Sterility, 83, 466–470.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bermond, B., Mos, J., Meelis, W., et al. (1982). Aggression induced by stimulation of the hypothalamus: effects of androgens. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 16, 41–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernstein, I. S., Rose, R. M. and Gordon, T. P. (1977). Behavioural and hormonal responses of male rhesus monkeys introduced to females in the breeding and non-breeding seasons. Animal Behavior, 25, 609–614.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bhasin, S., Storer, T. W., Berman, N., et al. (1996). The effects of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone on muscle size and strength in normal men. New England Journal of Medicine, 335, 1–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bhasin, S., Storer, T. W., Javanbakht, M., et al. (2000). Testosterone replacement and resistance exercise in HIV-infected men with weight loss and low testosterone levels. Journal of the American Medical Association, 283, 763–770.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bivalacqua, T. J., Champion, H. C., Mehta, Y. S., et al. (2000). Adenoviral gene transfer of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) to the penis improves age-related erectile dysfunction in the rat. International Journal of Impotence Research, 12, S8–S17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bobek, B., Perzanowski, K. and Weiner, J. (1990). Energy expenditure for reproduction in male red deer. Journal of Mammalogy, 71, 230–232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bogin, B. (1999). Evolutionary perspective on human growth. Annual Review of Anthropology, 28, 109–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonavera, J. J., Kalra, S. P. and Kalra, P. S. (1993). Mode of action of interleukin-1 in suppression of pituitary LH release in castrated male rats. Brain Research, 612, 1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonneaud, C., Mazuc, J., Gonzalez, G., et al. (2003). Assessing the cost of mounting an immune response. American Naturalist, 161(3), 367–379.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Booth, A., and Dabbs, J. M. (1993). Testosterone and men's marriages. Social Forces, 72, 463–477.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Booth, A. G., Shelley, A., Mazur, G., et al. (1989). Testosterone and winning and losing in human competition. Hormones and Behavior, 23, 556–571.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brédart, S. and French, R. M. (1999). Do babies resemble their fathers more than their mothers? A failure to replicate Christenfeld and Hill (1995). Evolution and Human Behavior, 20, 129–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breen, K. M. and Karsch, F. J. (2006). Does season alter responsiveness of the reproductive neuroendocrine axis to the suppressive actions of cortisol in ovariectomized ewes?Biology of Reproduction, 74, 41–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bermond, B., Mos, J., Meelis, W., et al. (1982). Aggression induced by stimulation of the hypothalamus: effects of androgens. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 16, 41–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bribiescas, R. G. (1996). Testosterone levels among Aché hunter/gatherer men: a functional interpretation of population variation among adult males. Human Nature, 7, 163–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bribiescas, R. G. (2001). Reproductive ecology and life history of the human male. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 44, 148–176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bribiescas, R. G. (2005). Age-related differences in serum gonadotropin (FSH and LH), salivary testosterone, and 17-β estradiol levels among Aché Amerindian males of Paraguay. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 127, 114–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bribiescas, R. G. (2006). On the evolution, life history, and proximate mechanisms of human male reproductive senescence. Evolutionary Anthropology, 15, 132–141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bromwich, P., Cohen, J., Stewart, I., et al. (1994). Decline in sperm counts: an artifact of changed reference range of “normal”?British Medical Journal, Clinical Research, 309, 19–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bruce, H. M. (1959). An exteroceptive block to pregnancy in the mouse. Nature, 184, 105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bruning, J. C., Gautam, D., Burks, D. J., et al. (2000). Role of brain insulin receptor in control of body weight and reproduction. Science, 289, 2122–2125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buchan, J. C., Alberts, S. C., Silk, J. B., et al. (2003). True paternal care in a multi-male primate society. Nature, 425, 179–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buena, F., Swerdloff, R. S., Steiner, B. S., et al. (1993). Sexual function does not change when serum testosterone levels are pharmacologically varied within the normal male range. Fertility and Sterility, 59, 1118–1123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buettner, T. (1995). Sex differentials in old-age mortality. Population Bulletin of the United Nations, 39, 18–44.Google Scholar
Burger, D. and Dayer, J. M. (2002). Cytokines, acute-phase proteins, and hormones: IL-1 and TNF-α production in contact-mediated activation of monocytes by T lymphocytes. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 966, 464–473.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buss, D. M. and Schmidt, D. P. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: an evolutionary perspective on human mating. Psychological Review, 100, 204–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Byrne, J. and Warburton, D. (1987). Male excess among anatomically normal fetuses in spontaneous abortions. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 26, 605–611.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calfee, R. and Fadale, P. (2006). Popular ergogenic drugs and supplements in young athletes. Pediatrics, 117, e577–e589.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, B. C. (2006). Adrenarche and the evolution of human life history. American Journal of Human Biology, 18, 569–589.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, B. C. and Leslie, P. W. (1995). Reproductive ecology of human males. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 38, 1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, B. C., O'Rourke, M. and Lipson, S. F. (2003). Salivary testosterone and body composition among Ariaal males. American Journal of Human Biology, 15, 697–708.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, B. C., Gillett-Netting, R. and Meloy, M. (2004). Timing of reproductive maturation in rural versus urban Tonga boys, Zambia. Annals of Human Biology, 31, 213–227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, B. C., Leslie, P. W., Little, M. A., et al. (2005a). Pubertal timing, hormones, and body composition among adolescent Turkana males. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 128, 896–905.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, B. C., Prossinger, H. and Mbzivo, M. (2005b). Timing of pubertal maturation and the onset of sexual behavior among Zimbabwe school boys. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34, 505–516.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, B. C., Gray, P. B. and Ellison, P. T. (2006). Age-related patterns of body composition and salivary testosterone among Ariaal men of Northern Kenya. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 18, 470–476.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, K. L. (1994). Blood, urine, saliva, and dip-sticks: experiences in Africa, New Guinea, and Boston. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 709, 312–330.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carani, C., Bancroft, J., Del Rio, G., et al. (1990). The endocrine effects of visual erotic stimuli in normal men. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 15, 207–216.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carani, C., Scuteri, A., Marrama, P., et al. (1990). The effects of testosterone administration and visual erotic stimuli on nocturnal penile tumescence in normal men. Hormones and Behavior, 24, 435–441.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caretta, N., Palego, P., Roverato, A., et al. (2006). Age-matched cavernous peak systolic velocity: a highly sensitive parameter in the diagnosis of arteriogenic erectile dysfunction. International Journal of Impotence Research, 18, 306–310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, H. B., Pearson, J. D., Metter, E. J., et al. (1995). Longitudinal evaluation of serum androgen levels in men with and without prostate cancer. Prostate, 27, 25–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2009). Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2007 Supplement, Syphilis Surveillance Report. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Cernak, I., Savic, J. and Lazarov, A. (1997). Relations among plasma prolactin, testosterone, and injury severity in war casualties. World Journal of Surgery, 21, 240–245.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chatterton, R. T., Vogelsong, K. M., Lu, Y., et al. (1997). Hormonal responses to psychological stress in men preparing for skydiving. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 82, 2503–2509.Google ScholarPubMed
Christenfeld, N. J. S. and Hill, E. A. (1995). Whose baby are you? Scientific correspondence. Nature, 378, 669.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christiansen, K. (1991a). Sex hormone levels, diet and alcohol consumption in Namibian Kavango men. Homo, 42, 43–62.Google Scholar
Christiansen, K. H. (1991b). Serum and saliva sex hormone levels in!Kung San men. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 86, 37–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clutton-Brock, T. H. (1991). The Evolution of Parental Care. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Conley, A. J., Pattison, J. C. and Bird, I. M. (2004). Variations in adrenal androgen production among (nonhuman) primates. Seminars in Reproductive Medicine, 22, 311–326.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cook, L. S., Goldoft, M., Schwartz, S. M., et al. (1999). Incidence of adenocarcinoma of the prostate in Asian immigrants to the United States and their descendants. Journal of Urology, 161, 152–155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cooper, T. G., Keck, C., Oberdieck, U., et al. (1993). Effects of multiple ejaculations after extended periods of sexual abstinence on total, motile and normal sperm numbers, as well as accessory gland secretions, from healthy normal and oligozoospermic men. Human Reproduction, 8, 1251–1258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corbier, P., Edwards, D. A. and Roffi, J. (1992). The neonatal testosterone surge: a comparative study. Archives Internationales de Physiologie, 100, 127–131.Google ScholarPubMed
Crawford, E. D. (2003). Epidemiology of prostate cancer. Urology, 62, 3–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cumming, D. C., Brunsting, L. A., Strich, G., et al. (1986). Reproductive hormone increases in response to acute exercise in men. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 18, 369–373.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dabbs, J. M. and Dabbs, M. G. (2000). Heroes, Rogues, and Lovers: Testosterone and Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Dabbs, J. M. and Mohammed, S. (1992). Male and female salivary testosterone concentrations before and after sexual activity. Physiological Behavior, 52, 195–197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dabbs, J. M., Frady, R. L., Carr, T. S., et al. (1987). Saliva testosterone and criminal violence in young adult prison inmates. Psychosomatic Medicine, 49, 174–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dabbs, J. M., Carr, T. S., Frady, R. L., et al. (1995). Testosterone, crime, and misbehavior among 692 male prison inmates. Personality and Individual Differences, 18(5), 627–633.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daly, M. and Wilson, M. (1983). Sex, Evolution, and Behavior. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.Google Scholar
Daly, M. and Wilson, M. (1988). Homicide. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.Google ScholarPubMed
Davidson, J. M., Camargo, C. A. and Smith, E. R. (1978). Effects of androgen on sexual behavior in hypogonadal men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 48, 955–958.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, M. J. and Norman, R. J. (2002). Programming and reproductive functioning. Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism, 13, 386–392.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daynes, R. A. and Araneo, B. A. (1991). Regulation of T-cell function by steroid hormones. In Cellular and Cytokine Networks in Tissue Immunity, Meltzer, M. A. and Mantovani, A. (eds). New York: Wiley-Liss, pp. 77–82.Google Scholar
Deerenberg, C., Arpanius, V., Daan, S., et al. (1997). Reproductive effort decreases antibody responsiveness. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, 264, 1021–1029.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rochebrochard, E., Mouzon, J., Thepot, F., et al. (2006). Fathers over 40 and increased failure to conceive: the lessons of in vitro fertilization in France. Fertility and Sterility, 85, 1420–1424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moor, P., Verhoeven, G. and Heyns, W. (1973). Permanent effects of fetal and neonatal testosterone secretion on steroid metabolism and binding. Differentiation, 1, 241–253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Demas, G. E., Chefer, V., Talan, M. I., et al. (1997). Metabolic costs of mounting an antigen-stimulated immune response in adult and aged C57BL/6J mice. American Journal of Physiology: Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, 42, R1331–R1367.Google Scholar
Demas, G. E., Drazen, D. L. and Nelson, R. J. (2003). Reductions in total body fat decrease humoral immunity. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, 270, 905–911.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deslypere, J. P. and Vermeulen, A. (1984). Leydig cell function in normal men: effect of age, life style, residence, diet and activity. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 59, 955–962.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dewsbury, D. A. (1982). Ejaculate cost and male choice. American Naturalist, 1, 601–610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dixson, A. F. (1999). Primate Sexuality: Comparative Studies of the Prosimians, Monkeys, Apes, and Human Beings. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Dobs, A. and Brown, T. (2002). Metabolic abnormalities in HIV disease and injection drug use. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 31, S70–S77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doerr, P. and Pirke, K. M. (1976). Cortisol-induced suppression of plasma testosterone in normal adult males. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 43, 622–629.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Domb, L. G. and Pagel, M. (2001). Sexual swellings advertise female quality in wild baboons. Nature, 410, 204–206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duggan, M. B., Alwar, J. and Milner, R. D. (1986). The nutritional cost of measles in Africa. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 61, 61–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eaton, N. E., Reeves, G. K., Appleby, P. N., et al. (1999). Endogenous sex hormones and prostate cancer: a quantitative review of prospective studies. British Journal of Cancer, 80, 930–934.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elia, M. (1992). Organ and tissue contribution to metabolic rate. In Energy Metabolism: Tissue Determinants and Cellular Corollaries, Kinney, J. and Tucker, H. N. (eds). New York: Raven Press, pp. 61–79.Google Scholar
Ellis, B. J. and Garber, J. (2000). Psychosocial antecedents of variation in girls' pubertal timing: maternal depression, stepfather presence, and marital and family stress. Child Development, 71, 485–501.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellison, P. T. (1990). Human ovarian function and reproductive ecology: new hypotheses. American Anthropology, 92, 933–952.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellison, P. T. (1994). Advances in human reproductive ecology. Annual Review of Anthropology, 23, 255–275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellison, P. T. (2001). On Fertile Ground: A Natural History of Human Reproduction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Ellison, P. T. (2003). Energetics and reproductive effort. American Journal of Human Biology, 15, 342–351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellison, P. T. and Panter-Brick, C. (1996). Salivary testosterone levels among Tamang and Kami males of central Nepal. Human Biology, 68, 955–965.Google ScholarPubMed
Ellison, P. T., Lipson, S. F. and Meredith, M. D. (1989). Salivary testosterone levels in males from the Ituri forest of Zaire. American Journal of Human Biology, 1, 21–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellison, P. T., Panter-Brick, C., Lipson, S. F., et al. (1993). The ecological context of human ovarian function. Human Reproduction, 8, 2248–2258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellison, P. T., Bribiescas, R. G., Bentley, G. R., et al. (2002). Population variation in age-related decline in male salivary testosterone. Human Reproduction, 17, 3251–3253.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emanuel, E. R., Goluboff, E. T. and Fisch, H. (1998). MacLeod revisited: sperm count distributions in 374 fertile men from 1971 to 1994. Urology, 51, 86–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fabbri, A., Aversa, A. and Isidori, A. (1997). Erectile dysfunction: an overview. Human Reproduction Update, 3, 455–466.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fedigan, L. M. and Zohar, S. (1997). Sex differences in mortality of Japanese macaques. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 102, 161–165.3.0.CO;2-1>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Filsinger, E. E, Braun, J. J. and Monte, W. C. (1985). An examination of the effects of putative pheromones on human judgments. Ethology and Sociobiology, 6, 227–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisch, H., Ikeguchi, E. F. and Goluboff, E. T. (1996). Worldwide variations in sperm counts. Urology, 48, 909–911.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, R. A. (1932). The genetical theory of natural selection. Nature, 66, 118–138.Google Scholar
Fleming, P. J., Howell, T., Clements, M., et al. (1994). Thermal balance and metabolic rate during upper respiratory tract infection in infants. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 70, 187–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forest, M. G., Sizonenko, P. C., Cathiard, A. M., et al. (1974). Hypophyso-gonadal function in humans during the first year of life. I: Evidence for testicular activity in early infancy. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 53, 819–828.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fukagawa, N. K., Bandini, L. G. and Young, J. B. (1990). Effect of age on body composition and resting metabolic rate. American Journal of Physiology, 259, E233–E238.Google ScholarPubMed
Gangestad, S. W. and Thornhill, R. (1998). Menstrual cycle variation in women's preference for the scent of symmetrical men. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, 265, 927–933.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gangestad, S. W., Thornhill, R. and Garver-Apgar, C. E. (2005). Women's sexual interests across the ovulatory cycle depend on primary partner developmental instability. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, 272, 2023–2027.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gao, H. B., Tong, M. H., Hu, Y. Q., et al. (2002). Glucocorticoid induces apoptosis in rat Leydig cells. Endocrinology, 143, 130–138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gems, D. and Riddle, D. L. (1996). Longevity in Caenorhabditis elegans reduced by mating but not gamete production. Nature, 379, 723–725.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilbeau, P. M. and Smith, C. G. (1985). Naloxone reversal of stress-induced reproductive effects in the male rhesus monkey. Neuropeptides, 5, 335–338.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giltay, E. J., Fonk, J. C., Blomberg, B. M., et al. (2000). In vivo effects of sex steroids on lymphocyte responsiveness and immunoglobulin levels in humans. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 85, 1648–1657.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giwercman, A., Carlsen, E., Keiding, N., et al. (1993). Evidence for increasing incidence of abnormalities of the human testis: a review. Environmental Health Perspectives, 101, 65–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glass, R. H. (1991). Infertility. In Reproductive Endocrinology: Physiology, Pathophysiology, and Clinical Management, Samuel, S., Yen, C. and Jaffe, R. B. (eds). Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, pp. 689–709.Google Scholar
Glick, B. B. (1984). Male endocrine responses to females: effects of social cues in cynomolgus macaques. American Journal of Primatology, 6, 229–239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gomez-Merino, D., Chennaouia, M, Burnat, P., et al. (2003). Immune and hormonal changes following intense military training. Military Medicine, 168, 1034–1038.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gomez-Merino, D., Drogoua, C., Chennaouia, M., et al. (2005). Effects of combined stress during intense training on cellular immunity, hormones and respiratory infections. Neuroimmunomodulation, 12, 164–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Granger, D. A., Booth, A. and Johnson, D. R. (2000). Human aggression and enumerative measures of immunity. Psychosomatic Medicine, 62, 583–590.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gray, A., Feldman, H. A., McKinlay, J. B., et al. (1991). Age, disease, and changing sex hormone levels in middle-aged men: results of the Massachusetts Male Aging Study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 73, 1016–1025.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gray, P. B. and Campbell, B. C. (2005). Erectile dysfunction and its correlates among the Ariaal of northern Kenya. Internal Journal of Impotence Research, 17, 445–449.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gray, P. B., Chapman, J. F., Burnham, T. C., et al. (2004). Human male pair bonding and testosterone. Human Nature, 15, 119–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Griffin, J. E. (2004). Male reproductive function. In Textbook of Endocrine Physiology, Griffin, J. E. and Ojeda, S. R. (eds), 5th edn. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 243–264.Google Scholar
Grossman, C. J. (1995). The role of sex steroids in immune system regulation. In Bilateral Communication between the Endocrine and Immune Systems, Grossman, C. J. (ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. 1–11.Google Scholar
Grossman, C. J., Roselle, G. A. and Mendenhall, C. L. (1991). Sex steroid regulation of autoimmunity. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 40, 649–659.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gruenbaum, E. (2001). The Female Circumcision Controversy: an Anthropological Perspective. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grumbach, M. M. and Conte, F. A. (1998). Disorders of sex differentiation. In Williams Textbook of Endocrinology, Larsen, P. R., Kronenberg, H. M., Melmed, S. et al. (eds), 9th edn. Philadelphia: Saunders, pp. 1303–1425.Google Scholar
Guo, S. S., Zeller, C., Chumlea, W. C., et al. (1999). Aging, body composition, and lifestyle: the Fels Longitudinal Study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 70, 405–411.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guzick, D. S., Overstreet, J. W., Factor-Litvak, P., et al. (2001). Sperm morphology, motility, and concentration in fertile and infertile men. New England Journal of Medicine, 345, 1388–1393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hall, R. C. and Hall, R. C. (2005). Abuse of supraphysiologic doses of anabolic steroids. Southern Medical Journal, 98(5), 550–555.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamilton, W. D. and Zuk, M. (1982). Heritable true fitness and bright birds: a role for parasites?Science, 218, 384–387.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harcourt, A. H., Harvey, P. H., Larson, S. G., et al. (1981). Testis weight, body weight and breeding system in primates. Nature, 293, 55–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hardy, M. P., Gao, H. B., Dong, Q., et al. (2005). Stress hormone and male reproductive function. Cell and Tissue Research, 322, 147–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harman, S. M., Metter, E. J., Tobin, J. D., et al. (2001). Longitudinal effects of aging on serum total and free testosterone levels in healthy men. Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 86, 724–731.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harvey, P. H. and Harcourt, A. H. (1984). Sperm competition, testes size, and breeding system in primates. In Sperm Competition and the Evolution of Animal Mating Systems, Smith, R. L. (ed.). New York: Academic Press, pp. 573–587.Google Scholar
Hausfater, G. and Hrdy, S. B. (1984). Infanticide in Comparative and Evolutionary Perspectives. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Hayes, F. J., Seminara, S. B., Decruz, S., et al. (2000). Aromatase inhibition in the human male reveals a hypothalamic site of estrogen feedback. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 85, 3027–3035.Google ScholarPubMed
Hendrix, C. T. (2004). The history of violence against women in three acts. Violence Against Women, 10, 1383–1394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, K. (1993). Life history theory and evolutionary anthropology. Evolutionary Anthropology, 2, 78–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, K. and Hurtado, A. M. (1996). Ache Life History: the Ecology and Demography of a Foraging People. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Hill, K., Boesch, C., Goodall, J., et al. (2001). Mortality rates among wild chimpanzees. Journal of Human Evolution, 40, 437–450.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hrdy, S. B. (1979). Infanticide among animals: a review, classification, and examination of the implications for the reproductive strategies of females. Ethology and Sociobiology, 1, 13–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hsing, A. W. (2001). Hormones and prostate cancer: what's next?Epidemiological Review, 23, 42–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hublart, M., Tetaert, D., Croix, D., et al. (1990). Gonadotropic dysfunction produced by Trypanosoma brucei brucei in the rat. Acta Tropica, 47, 177–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ikede, B. O., Elhassan, E. and Akpavie, S. O. (1988). Reproductive disorders in African trypanosomiasis: a review. Acta Tropica, 45, 5–10.Google ScholarPubMed
Ing, R., Su, Z., Scott, M. E., et al. (2000). Suppressed T helper 2 immunity and prolonged survival of a nematode parasite in protein-malnourished mice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 97, 7078–7083.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ingemarsson, I. (2003). Gender aspects of preterm birth. BJOG: an International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 110, 34–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Isseroff, H., Sylvester, P. W., Bessette, C. L., et al. (1989). Schistosomiasis: role of endogenous opioids in suppression of gonadal steroid secretion. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 94, 41–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iturregui-Pagán, J. R., Fortuno, R. F. and Noy, M. A. (1976). Genital manifestation of filariasis. Urology, 8, 207–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jakobsson, J., Ekstrom, L., Inotsume, N., et al. (2006). Large differences in testosterone excretion in Korean and Swedish men are strongly associated with a UDP-glucuronosyl transferase 2B17 polymorphism. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 91, 687–693.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jameson, J. L. (1996). Inherited disorders of the gonadotropin hormones. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, 125, 143–149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jasienska, G. and Ellison, P. T. (1998). Physical work causes suppression of ovarian function in women. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, 265, 1847–1851.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jasienska, G. and Ellison, P. T. (2004). Energetic factors and seasonal changes in ovarian function in women from rural Poland. American Journal of Human Biology, 16, 563–580.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jasienska, G., Ziomkiewicz, A., Ellison, P. T., et al. (2004). Large breast and narrow waist indicate high reproductive potential in women. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, 271, 1213–1217.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joffe, M. (2003). Invited commentary: the potential for monitoring of fecundity and the remaining challenges. American Journal of Epidemiology, 157, 89–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kalantaridou, S. N., Makrigiannakis, A., Zoumakis, E., et al. (2004). Reproductive functions of corticotropin-releasing hormone. Research and potential clinical utility of antalarmins (CRH receptor type 1 antagonists). American Journal of Reproductive Immunology, 51, 269–274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, H., Hill, K., Lancaster, J., et al. (2000). A theory of human life history evolution: diet, intelligence, and longevity. Evolutionary Anthropology, 9, 156–185.3.0.CO;2-7>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kellokumpu-Lehtinen, P. and Pelliniemi, L. J. (1984). Sex ratio of human conceptuses. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 64, 220–222.Google ScholarPubMed
Kendrick, K. M. and Drewett, R. F. (1979). Testosterone reduces refractory period of stria terminalis neurons in the rat brain. Science, 2004, 877–879.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ketterson, E. D. and Nolan, V. (1992). Hormones and life histories: an integrative approach. American Naturalist, 140, 33–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ketterson, E. D., Nolan, V., Wolf, L., et al. (1992). Testosterone and avian life histories: effects of experimentally elevated testosterone on behavior and correlates of fitness in the dark eyed junco (Junco hyemalis). American Naturalist, 140, 980–999.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Key, T. J., Roe, L., Thorogood, M., et al. (1990). Testosterone, sex hormone-binding globulin, calculated free testosterone, and oestradiol in male vegans and omnivores. British Journal of Nutrition, 64, 111–119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kidd, S. A., Eskenazi, B. and Wyrobek, A. J. (2001). Effects of male age on semen quality and fertility: a review of the literature. Fertility and Sterility, 75, 237–248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. R. and Martin, C. E. (1948). Sexual Behavior in the Human Male. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. R., Martin, C. E., et al. (1953). Sexual Behavior in the Human Female. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Klasing, K. C. (1998). Nutritional modulation of resistance to infectious diseases. Poultry Science, 77, 1119–1125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klein, S. L. (2000). The effects of hormones on sex differences in infection: from genes to behavior. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 24, 627–638.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kley, H. K., Deselaers, T. and Peerenboom, H. (1981). Evidence for hypogonadism in massively obese males due to decreased free testosterone. Hormone and Metabolic Research, 11, 639–641.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klibanski, A., Beitins, I. Z., Badger, T., et al. (1981). Reproductive function during fasting in men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 53, 258–263.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knickmeyer, R. C. and Baron-Cohen, S. (2006). Fetal testosterone and sex differences. Early Human Development, 82, 755–760.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knott, C. D. (1999). Reproductive, Physiological and Behavioral Responses of Orangutans in Borneo to Fluctuations in Food Availability (Dissertation). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Kohl, J. V., Atzmueller, M., Fink, B., et al. (2001). Human pheromones: integrating neuroendocrinology and ethology. Neuroendocrinology Letters, 22, 309–321.Google ScholarPubMed
Koski, K. G. and Scott, M. E. (2001). Gastrointestinal nematodes, nutrition and immunity: breaking the negative spiral. Annual Review of Nutrition, 21, 297–321.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krakowski, M. (2003). Violence and serotonin: influence of impulse control, affect regulation, and social functioning. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 15, 294–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kramer, T. R., Moore, R. J., Shippee, R. L., et al. (1997). Effects of food restriction in military training on T-lymphocyte responses. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 18, S84–S90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kratzik, C., Schatzl, G., Lunglmayr, G., et al. (2005). The impact of age, body mass index and testosterone on erectile dysfunction. Journal of Urology, 174, 240–243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kronenberg, H. M., Melmed, S., Polonsky, K. S., et al. (eds) (2007). Williams Textbook of Endocrinology, 9th edn. Philadelphia: Saunders.Google Scholar
Kuhnert, B. and Nieschlag, E. (2004). Reproductive functions of the ageing male. Human Reproduction Update, 10, 327–339.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kulin, H. E., Bwibo, N., Mutie, D., et al. (1984). Gonadotropin excretion during puberty in malnourished children. Journal of Pediatrics, 105, 325–328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kumar, T. R., Wang, Y., Lu, N., et al. (1997). Follicle stimulating hormone is required for ovarian follicle maturation but not male fertility. Nature Genetics, 15, 201–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kurihara, M., Aoki, K., and Hisamichi, S. (eds) (1989). Cancer Mortality Statistics in the World 1950–1985. Nagoya, Japan: University of Nagoya Press.Google Scholar
Levine, R. J., Brown, M. H., Bell, M., et al. (1992). Air-conditioned environments do not prevent deterioration of human semen quality during the summer. Fertility and Sterility, 57, 1075–1083.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lin, E., Kotani, J. G. and Lowry, S. F. (1998). Nutritional modulation of immunity and the inflammatory response. Nutrition, 14, 545–550.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lo, J. C. and Schambelan, M. (2001). Reproductive function in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 86, 2338–2343.Google ScholarPubMed
Lochmiller, R. L. and Deerenberg, C. (2000). Trade-offs in evolutionary immunology: just what is the cost of immunity?Oikos, 88, 87–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lofrano-Porto, A., Barra, G. B., Giacomini, L. A., et al. (2007). Luteinizing hormone beta mutation and hypogonadism in men and women. New England Journal of Medicine, 357, 897–904.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Low, B. S. (2000). Why Sex Matters: a Darwinian Look at Human Behavior. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Lukas, W. D., Campbell, B. C. and Ellison, P. T. (2004). Testosterone, aging, and body composition in men from Harare, Zimbabwe. American Journal of Human Biology, 16, 704–712.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mace, R. (1996). Biased parental investment and reproductive success in Gabbra pastoralists. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 38, 75–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maggioncalda, A. N., Sapolsky, R. M. and Czekala, N. M. (1999). Reproductive hormone profiles in captive male orangutans: implications for understanding developmental arrest. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 109, 19–32.3.0.CO;2-3>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maggioncalda, A. N., Czekala, N. M. and Sapolsky, R. M. (2000). Growth hormone and thyroid stimulating hormone concentrations in captive male orangutans: implications for understanding developmental arrest. American Journal of Primatology, 50, 67–76.3.0.CO;2-V>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malaspina, D., Harlap, S., Fennig, S., et al. (2001). Advancing paternal age and risk of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 361–367.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marin, P., Holmang, S., Jonsson, L., et al. (1992a). The effects of testosterone treatment on body composition and metabolism in middle-aged obese men. International Journal of Obesity Related Metabolic Disorders, 16, 991–997.Google ScholarPubMed
Marin, P., Krotkiewski, M. and Bjorntorp, P. (1992b). Androgen treatment of middle-aged, obese men: effects on metabolism, muscle and adipose tissues. European Journal of Medicine, 1, 329–336.Google ScholarPubMed
Marler, C. A. and Moore, M. C. (1988). Evolutionary costs of aggression revealed by testosterone manipulations in free-living lizards. Behavior Ecology and Sociobiology, 23, 21–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marler, C. A., Walsberg, G., White, M. L., et al. (1995). Increased energy expenditure due to the increased territorial defense in male lizards after phenotypic manipulation. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 37, 225–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, C. W., Riley, S. C., Everington, D., et al. (2000). Dose-finding study of oral desogestrel with testosterone pellets for suppression of the pituitary–testicular axis in normal men. Human Reproduction, 15, 1515–1524.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matson, P. L. (1995). External quality assessment for semen analysis and sperm antibody detection: results of a pilot scheme. Human Reproduction, 10, 620–625.Google ScholarPubMed
Mazur, A. (1992). Testosterone and chess competition. Social Psychology Quarterly, 55, 70–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazur, A. and Booth, A. (1998). Testosterone and dominance in men. Behavior and Brain Science, 21, 353–364.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McClintock, M. K. (1971). Menstrual synchrony and suppression. Nature, 291, 244–245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKinlay, J. B. (2000). The worldwide prevalence and epidemiology of erectile dysfunction. International Journal of Impotence Research, 12, S6–S11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McMillin, J. M., Seal, U. S. and Karns, P. D. (1980). Hormonal correlates of hypophagia in white-tailed deer. Federation Proceedings, 39, 2964–2968.Google ScholarPubMed
Meeker, J. D., Godfrey-Bailey, L. and Hauser, R. (2007). Relationships between serum hormone levels and semen quality among men from an infertility clinic. Journal of Andrology, 28, 397–406.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mieusset, R. and Bujan, L. (1995). Testicular heating and its possible contributions to male infertility: a review. International Journal of Andrology, 18, 169–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mitani, J. (1985). Mating behavior of male orangutans in Kutai Game Reserve, Indonesia. Animal Behavior, 33, 392–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, J. C., Li, X. F., Breen, L., et al. (2005). The role of the locus coeruleus in corticotrophin-releasing hormone and stress-induced suppression of pulsatile luteinizing hormone secretion in the female rat. Endocrinology, 146, 323–331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moore, S. L. and Wilson, K. (2002). Parasites as a viability cost of sexual selection in natural populations of mammals. Science, 297, 2015–2018.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morell, V. (1993). Evidence found for a possible “aggression gene.”Science, 262, 321.
Muehlenbein, M. P., Jordan, J. L., Bonner, J. Z., et al. (in press). Towards quantifying the usage costs of human immunity: altered metabolic rates and hormone levels during acute immune activation in men. American Journal of Human Biology.
Muehlenbein, M. P. (2008). Adaptive variation in testosterone levels in response to immune activation: empirical and theoretical perspectives. Social Biology, 53, 13–23.Google Scholar
Muehlenbein, M. P. and Bribiescas, R. G. (2005). Testosterone-mediated immune functions and male life histories. American Journal of Human Biology, 17, 527–558.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muehlenbein, M. P., Algier, J., Cogswell, F., et al. (2005). The reproductive endocrine response to Plasmodium vivax infection in Hondurans. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 73, 178–187.Google ScholarPubMed
Muller, G., Keller, A., Reich, A., et al. (2004). Priming with testosterone enhances stimulated growth hormone secretion in boys with delayed puberty. Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology and Metabolism, 17, 77–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muller, M. N. and Wrangham, R. W. (2005). Testosterone and energetics in wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii). American Journal of Primatology, 66, 119–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muller, M., Tonkelaar, I., Thijssen, J. H., et al. (2003). Endogenous sex hormones in men aged 40–80 years. European Journal of Endocrinology, 149, 583–589.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muller, M., Thompson, M. and Wrangham, R. (2006). Male chimpanzees prefer mating with old females. Current Biology, 16, 2234–2238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nelson, G. S. (1958). Schistosoma mansoni infection in the West Nile District of Uganda. I. The incidence of S. mansoni infection. East African Medical Journal, 35, 311–319.Google ScholarPubMed
Nelson, R. J., Demas, G. E., Klein, S. L., et al. (2002). Seasonal Patterns of Stress, Immune Function, and Disease. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nelson, W. G., Marzo, A. M. and Isaacs, W. B. (2003). Prostate cancer. New England Journal of Medicine, 349, 366–381.CrossRef
Newsholme, P., and Newsholme, E. A. (1989). Rates of utilization of glucose, glutamine and oleate and formation of end-products by mouse peritoneal macrophages in culture. Biochemistry Journal, 261, 211–218.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nnatu, S. N., Giwa-Osagie, O. F. and Essien, E. E. (1991). Effect of repeated semen ejaculation on sperm quality. Clinical and Experimental Obstetrics, 18, 39–42.Google ScholarPubMed
Nordling, D., Andersson, M., Zohari, S., et al. (1998). Reproductive effort reduces specific immune response and parasite resistance. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, 265, 1291–1298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norris, K., Anwar, M. and Read, A. F. (1994). Reproductive effort influences the prevalence of haematozoan parasites in great tits. Journal of Animal Ecology, 63, 601–610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nussey, S. and Whitehead, S. A. (2001). Endocrinology: an Integrated Approach. Oxford: Taylor and Francis.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Odendaal, F. J., Jones, K. N. and Stermitz, F. R. (1989). Mating behavior and male investment in euphydryas-anicia lepidoptera nymphalidae. Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera, 28, 1–13.Google Scholar
Oktenli, C., Doganci, L., Ozgurtas, T., et al. (2004). Transient hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism in males with acute toxoplasmosis: suppressive effect of interleukin-1 on the secretion of GnRH. Human Reproduction, 19, 859–866.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, G. W., Bodner, K. M., Ramlow, J. M., et al. (1995). Have sperm counts been reduced 50 percent in 50 years? A statistical model revisited. Fertility and Sterility, 63, 887–893.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olsen, N. J. and Kovacs, W. J. (1996). Gonadal steroids and immunity. Endocrinological Review, 17, 369–384.Google ScholarPubMed
Opstad, P. K. (1992). Androgenic hormones during prolonged physical stress, sleep, and energy deficiency. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 74, 1176–1183.Google ScholarPubMed
Orwoll, E., Lambert, L. C., Marshall, L. M., et al. (2006). Testosterone and estradiol among older men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 91, 1336–1344.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Owens, I. P. (2002). Sex differences in mortality rate. Science, 297, 2008–2009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parazzini, F., Vecchia, C., Levi, F., et al. (1998). Trends in male:female ratio among newborn infants in 29 countries from five continents. Human Reproduction, 13, 1394–1396.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parr, L. A. and Waal, F. B. M. (1999). Visual kin recognition in chimpanzees. Nature, 399, 647–648.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Partridge, L. and Farquhar, M. (1981). Sexual activity reduces lifespan of male fruit flies. Nature, 294, 580–582.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pflieger-Bruss, S., Schuppe, H. C. and Schill, W. B. (2004). The male reproductive system and its susceptibility to endocrine disrupting chemicals. Andrologia, 36, 337–345.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plas, E., Berger, P., Hermann, M, et al. (2000). Effects of aging on male fertility?Experimental Gerontology, 35, 543–551.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Polansky, F. F. and Lamb, E. J. (1988). Do the results of semen analysis predict future fertility? A survival analysis study. Fertility and Sterility, 49, 1059–1065.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pope, H. G., Kouri, E. M. and Hudson, J. I. (2000). Effects of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone on mood and aggression in normal men: a randomized controlled trial. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 133–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poretsky, L., Can, S. and Zumoff, B. (1995). Testicular dysfunction in human immunodeficiency virus-infected homosexual men. Metabolism, 44, 946–953.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potts, M. and Short, R. (1999). Ever Since Adam and Eve. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Poulin, R. (1996). Sexual inequalities in helminth infections: a cost of being a male?American Naturalist, 147, 287–295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quinn, M. and Babb, P. (2002). Patterns and trends in prostate cancer incidence, survival, prevalence and mortality. Part I: international comparisons. British Journal of Urology International, 90, 162–173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raberg, L., Grahn, M., Hasselquist, D., et al. (1998). On the adaptive significance of stress-induced immunosuppression. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, 265, 1637–1641.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raberg, L., Vestberg, M., Hasselquist, D., et al. (2002). Basal metabolic rate and the evolution of the adaptive immune system. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, 269, 817–821.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raven, P. H. and Johnson, G. B. (1988). Understanding Biology. St. Louis: Times Mirror/Mosby College Publishing.Google Scholar
Reddy, S., Shapiro, M., Morton, R., et al. (2003). Prostate cancer in black and white Americans. Cancer and Metastasis Reviews, 22, 83–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reichenberg, A., Gross, R., Weiser, M., et al. (2006). Advancing paternal age and autism. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 1026–1032.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reincke, M., Arlt, W., Heppner, C., et al. (1998). Neuroendocrine dysfunction in African Trypanosomiasis: the role of cytokinesa. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 840, 809–821.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reynolds, V. (1991). The biological basis of human patterns of mating and marriage. In Marriage and Mating, Reynolds, V. and Kellett, J. (eds). Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 46–90.Google Scholar
Richner, H., Christe, P. and Oppliger, A. (1995). Paternal investment affects prevalence of malaria. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, 92, 1192–1194.Google ScholarPubMed
Ring, H. Z., Lessov, C. N., Reed, T., et al. (2005). Heritability of plasma sex hormones and hormone binding globulin in adult male twins. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 90, 3653–3658.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, A. C., McClure, R. D., Weiner, R. I., et al. (1993). Overtraining affects male reproductive status. Fertility and Sterility, 60, 686–692.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rochira, V., Zirilli, L., Genazzani, A. D., et al. (2006). Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis in two men with aromatase deficiency: evidence that circulating estrogens are required at the hypothalamic level for the integrity of gonadotropin negative feedback. European Journal of Endocrinology, 155, 513–522.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rodriguez, I., Greer, C. A., Mok, M. Y., et al. (2000). Putative pheromone receptor gene expressed in human olfactory mucosa. Nature Genetics, 26, 18–19.Google ScholarPubMed
Röjdmark, S. (1987). Influence of short-term fasting on the pituitary-testicular axis in normal men. Hormone Research, 25, 140–146.Google ScholarPubMed
Roney, J. R., Mahler, S. V. and Maestripieri, D. (2003). Behavioral and hormonal responses of men to brief interactions with women. Evolution and Human Behavior, 24, 365–375.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ronnekliev, O. and Resko, J. (1990). Ontogeny of gonadotropin-releasing hormone-containing neurons in early fetal development of rhesus macaques. Endocrinology, 126, 498–511.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rose, R. M., Kreuz, L. E., Holaday, J. W., et al. (1972). Diurnal variation of plasma testosterone and cortisol. Journal of Endocrinology, 54, 177–178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosen, R. C., Fisher, W. A., Eardley, I., et al. (2004). The multinational Men's Attitudes to Life Events and Sexuality (MALES) study: I. Prevalence of erectile dysfunction and related health concerns in the general population. Current Medical Research and Opinion, 20, 607–617.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roughgarden, J. (2009). Evolution's Rainbow: Diversity, Gender, and Sexuality in Nature and People, 2nd edn. Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Saad, S. H., Abdelbaky, A., Osman, A. M., et al. (1999). Possible role of Schistosoma mansoni infection in male hypogonadism. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology, 29, 307–323.Google ScholarPubMed
Safe, S. H. (2000). Endocrine disruptors and human health: is there a problem? An update. Environmental Health Perspectives, 108(6), 487–493.Google Scholar
Saidi, J. A., Chang, D. T., Goluboff, E. T., et al. (1999). Declining sperm counts in the United States? A critical review. Journal of Urology, 161, 460–462.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sapolsky, R. M. and Krey, L. C. (1988). Stress-induced suppression of luteinizing hormone concentrations in wild baboons: role of opiates. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 66, 722–726.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmid-Hempel, P. (2003). Variation in immune defence as a question of evolutionary ecology. Hormone Research, 270, 357–366.Google ScholarPubMed
Schoech, S. J., Ketterson, E. D., Nolan, V., et al. (1998). The effect of exogenous testosterone on parental behavior, plasma prolactin and prolactin binding sites in dark-eyed juncos. Hormones and Behavior, 34, 1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwartz, D., Mayaux, M. J., Spira, M. L., et al. (1983). Semen characteristics as a function of age in 833 fertile men. Fertility and Sterility, 39, 530–535.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seo, J. T., Rha, K. H., Park, Y. S., et al. (2000). Semen quality over a 10-year period in 22 249 men in Korea. International Journal of Andrology, 23, 194–198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sharpe, R. M. and Skakkebaek, N. E. (1993). Are oestrogens involved in falling sperm counts and disorders of the male reproductive tract?Lancet, 341, 1392–1395.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheldon, B. C. and Verhulst, S. (1996). Ecological immunology: costly parasite defenses and trade-offs in evolutionary ecology. Trends in Ecological Evolution, 11, 317–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shephard, R. J., Castellani, J. W. and Shek, P. N. (1998). Immune deficits induced by strenuous exertion under adverse environmental conditions: manifestations and countermeasures. Critical Reviews in Immunology, 18, 545–568.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shibata, A. and Whittemore, A. S. (1997). Genetic predisposition to prostate cancer: possible explanations for ethnic differences in risk. The Prostate, 32, 65–72.3.0.CO;2-B>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siiteri, P. K. and Wilson, J. D. (1974). Testosterone formation and metabolism during male sexual differentiation in the human embryo. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 38, 113–125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simard, J., Dumont, M., Soucy, P., et al. (2002). Perspective: prostate cancer susceptibility genes. Endocrinology, 143(6), 2029–2040.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singh, A. B., Hsia, S., Alaupovic, P., et al. (2002). The effects of varying doses of testosterone on insulin sensitivity, plasma lipids, apolipoproteins, and C-reactive protein in healthy young men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 87, 136–143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Small, M. F. (1988). Female primate sexual behavior and conception: are there really sperm to spare?Current Anthropology, 29, 81–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, R. J. and Leigh, S. R. (1998). Sexual dimorphism in primate neonatal body mass. Journal of Human Evolution, 34, 173–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, S. R., Chhetri, M. K., Johanson, J., et al. (1975). The pituitary-gonadal axis in men with protein-calorie malnutrition. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 41, 60–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smuts, B. B. and Smuts, R. W. (1993). Male aggression and sexual coercion of females in nonhuman primates and other mammals: evidence and theoretical implications. Advances in the Study of Behavior, 22, 1–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soudan, B., Tetaert, D., Racadot, A., et al. (1992). Decrease of testosterone level during an experimental African trypanosomiasis: involvement of a testicular LH receptor desensitization. Acta Endocrinology (Copenhagen), 127, 86–92.Google ScholarPubMed
Spratt, D. I. and Crowley, W. (1988). Pituitary and gonadal responsiveness is enhanced during GnRH-induced puberty. American Journal of Physiology, 254, E652–E657.Google ScholarPubMed
Spratt, D. I., Cox, P., Orav, J., et al. (1993). Reproductive axis suppression in acute illness is related to disease severity. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 76, 1548–1554.Google ScholarPubMed
Stahl, W., Kaneda, Y., Tanabe, M., et al. (1995). Uterine atrophy in chronic murine toxoplasmosis due to ovarian dysfunction. Journal of Parasitology Research, 81, 109–113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stearns, S. C. (1989). Trade-offs in life-history evolution. Functional Ecology, 3, 259–268.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stearns, S. C. (1992). The Evolution of Life Histories. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Storey, A. E., Walsh, C. J., Quinton, R. L., et al. (2000). Hormonal correlates of paternal responsiveness in new and expectant fathers. Evolution and Human Behavior, 21, 79–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strassmann, B. I. (1999). Menstrual synchrony pheromones: cause for doubt. Human Reproduction, 14, 579–580.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Straub, R. H. and Cutolo, M. (2001). Involvement of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal/gonadal axis and the peripheral nervous system in rheumatoid arthritis: viewpoint based on a systemic pathogenetic role. Arthritis and Rheumatism, 44, 493–507.3.0.CO;2-U>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sugiyama, L. S. (2005). Physical attractiveness in adaptationist perspective. In The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology, Buss, D. M. (ed.). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Swan, S. H., Elkin, E. P. and Fenster, L. (2000). The question of declining sperm density revisited: an analysis of 101 studies published 1934–1996. Environmental Health Perspectives, 108, 961–966.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tapanainen, J. S., Aittomaki, K., Min, J., et al. (1997). Men homozygous for an inactivating mutation of the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) receptor gene present variable suppression of spermatogenesis and fertility. Nature Genetics, 15, 205–266.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thornhill, R. and Palmer, C. (2000). A Natural History of Rape: Biological Basis of Sexual Coercion. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Tortolero, I., Arata, G., Lozano, R., et al. (1999). Semen analysis in men from Merida, Venezuela, over a 15-year period. Archives of Andrology, 42, 29–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tovee, M. J., Maisey, D. S., Emery, J. L., et al. (1999). Visual cues to female physical attractiveness. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, 266, 211–218.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Travison, T. G., Araujo, A. B., O'Donnell, A. B., et al. (2007). A population-level decline in serum testosterone levels in American men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 92, 196–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tricker, R., Casaburi, R., Storer, T. W., et al. (1996). The effects of supraphysiological doses of testosterone on angry behavior in healthy eugonadal men – a clinical research center study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 81, 3754–3758.Google Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. In Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man, Campbell, B. (ed.). Chicago: Aldine de Gruyter, pp. 136–179.Google Scholar
Tsai, L. W. and Sapolsky, R. M. (1996). Rapid stimulatory effects of testosterone upon myotubule metabolism and sugar transport, as assessed by silicon microphysiometry. Aggressive Behavior, 22, 357–364.3.0.CO;2-G>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uchida, A., Bribiescas, R. G., Ellison, P. T., et al. (2006). Age related variation of salivary testosterone values in healthy Japanese males. Aging Male, 9, 207–213.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beld, A. W., Jong, F. H., Grobbee, D. E., et al. (2000). Measures of bioavailable serum testosterone and estradiol and their relationships with muscle strength, bone density, and body composition in elderly men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 85, 3276–3282.Google ScholarPubMed
Valen, L. (1973). A new evolutionary law. Evolutionary Theory, 1, 1–30.Google Scholar
Voorhies, W. A. (1992). Production of sperm reduces nematode lifespan. Nature, 360, 456–458.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vandenbergh, J. C. (1967). Effect of the presence of a male on the sexual maturation of female mice. Endocrinology, 81, 345–349.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vandenbergh, J. G. (1973). Acceleration and inhibition of puberty in female mice by pheromones. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility, 19, 411–419.Google ScholarPubMed
Veldhuis, J. D., Wilkowski, M. J., Zwart, A. D., et al. (1993). Evidence for attenuation of hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) impulse strength with preservation of GnRH pulse frequency in men with chronic renal failure. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 76, 648–654.Google ScholarPubMed
Verhulst, S., Dieleman, S. J. and Parmentier, H. K. (1999). A tradeoff between immunocompetence and sexual ornamentation in domestic fowl. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 96, 4478–4481.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vermeulen, A., Kaufman, J. M., Goemaere, S., et al. (2002). Estradiol in elderly men. Aging Male, 5, 98–102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wagner, G. and Mulhall, J. (2001). Pathophysiology and diagnosis of male erectile dysfunction. British Journal of Urology International, 88, 3–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waldhauser, F., Weissenbacher, G., Frisch, H., et al. (1981). Pulsatile secretion of gonadotropins in early infancy. European Journal of Pediatrics, 137, 71–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, R. and Hill, K. (2003). Modeling growth and senescence in physical performance among the Aché of eastern Paraguay. American Journal of Human Biology, 15, 196–208.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, R., Hill, K., Kaplan, H., et al. (2002). Age-dependency in hunting ability among the Aché of eastern Paraguay. Journal of Human Evolution, 42, 639–657.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wasser, S. K. and Barash, D. P. (1983). Reproductive suppression among female mammals: implications for biomedicine and sexual selection theory. Quarterly Review of Biology, 58, 513–538.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waynforth, D. (1998). Fluctuating asymmetry and human male life history traits in rural Belize. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, 265, 1497–1501.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wedekind, C. and Folstad, I. (1994). Adaptive or nonadaptive immunosuppression by sex-hormones. American Naturalist, 143, 936–938.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wedekind, C., Seebeck, T., Bettens, F., et al. (1995). MHC-dependent mate preferences in humans. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, 260, 245–249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weinbauer, G. F. and Nieschlag, E. (1990). The role of testosterone in spermatogenesis. In Testosterone: Action, Deficiency, Substitution, Nieschlag, E. and Behre, H. M. (eds). Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp. 23–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weinstein, Y. and Bercovich, Z. (1981). Testosterone effects on bone marrow, thymus and suppressor T cells in the (NZB × NZW) F1 mice: its relevance to autoimmunity. Journal of Immunology, 126, 998–1002.Google Scholar
Welle, S., Jozefowicz, R., Forbes, G., et al. (1992). Effect of testosterone on metabolic rate and body composition in normal men and men with muscular dystrophy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 74, 332–335.Google ScholarPubMed
Whittemore, A. S., Wu, A. H., Kolonel, L. N., et al. (1995). Family history and prostate cancer risk in black, white, and Asian men in the United States and Canada. American Journal of Epidemiology, 141, 732–740.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitten, W. K. (1956). The effect of removal of the olfactory bulbs on the gonads of mice. Journal of Endocrinology, 14, 160–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, G. C. (1966). Adaptation and Natural Selection. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Wilson, I. B., Roubenoff, R., Knox, T. A., et al. (2000). Relation of lean body mass to health-related quality of life in persons with HIV. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 24, 137–146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, J. D. (1982). Gonadal hormones and sexual behavior. In Clinical Neuroendocrinology, Besser, G. M. and Martini, L. (eds). New York: Academic Press, pp. 1–29.Google Scholar
Wingfield, J. C., Hegner, R. E., Dufty, A. M., et al. (1990). The “challenge hypothesis”: theoretical implications for patterns of testosterone secretion, mating systems, and breeding strategies. American Naturalist, 136, 829–846.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wong, W. Y., Thomas, C. M. G., Merkus, H. M. W. M., et al. (2000). Cigarette smoking and the risk of male factor subfertility: minor association between cotinine in seminal plasma and semen morphology. Fertility and Sterility, 74, 930–935.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wong, W. Y., Zielhuis, G. A., Thomas, C. M. G., et al. (2003). New evidence of the influence of exogenous and endogenous factors on sperm count in man. European Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, 110, 49–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, J. W. (1994b). Dynamics of Human Reproduction: Biology, Biometry, Demography. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.Google Scholar
,World Health Organization (1999). Laboratory Manual for Examination of Human Semen. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Worthman, C. M. and Konner, M. J. (1987). Testosterone levels change with subsistence hunting effort in!Kung San men. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 12, 449–458.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wunderlich, F., Benten, W. P., Lieberherr, M., et al. (2002). Testosterone signaling in T cells and macrophages. Steroids, 67, 535–538.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yirmiya, R., Avitsur, R., Donchin, O., et al. (1995). Interleukin-1 inhibits sexual behavior in female but not in male rats. Brain, Behavior and Immunity, 9, 220–233.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zahavi, A. (1975). Mate selection – a selection for a handicap. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 53, 205–214.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zinner, D. P., Schwibbe, M. H. and Kaumanns, W. (1994). Cycle synchrony and probability of conception in female hamadryas baboons, Papio hamadryas. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 35, 175–184.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zirkin, B. R. and Chen, H. (2000). Regulation of Leydig cell steroidogenic function during aging. Biology of Reproduction, 63, 977–981.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zitzmann, M. and Nieschlag, E. (2001). Testosterone levels in healthy men and the relation to behavioural and physical characteristics: facts and constructs. European Journal of Endocrinology, 144, 183–197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zuk, M. and McKean, K. A. (1996). Sex differences in parasite infections: patterns and processes. International Journal of Parasitology, 26, 1009–1023.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×