Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T20:06:13.448Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

7 - Intraspecific and ontogenetic variation in the forelimb morphology of Gorilla

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 August 2009

By
Sandra E. Inouye
Edited by
Andrea B. Taylor  and
Michele L. Goldsmith
Sandra E. Inouye
Affiliation:
Department of Anatomy, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, 555 31st Street, Downers Grove, IL 60515, U.S.A.
Andrea B. Taylor
Affiliation:
Duke University, North Carolina
Michele L. Goldsmith
Affiliation:
Tufts University, Massachusetts
Get access

Summary

Introduction

Recent field, morphological, and molecular studies have increased our knowledge of variation in behavior, morphology, and genetics among the different subspecies of Gorilla. The behavioral and morphological variation between the eastern mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla beringei) and western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) is more extensive than previously thought, and mountain gorillas are viewed as more terrestrial and less arboreal than western lowland gorillas. This behavioral difference between mountain and western lowland gorillas is purportedly associated with different habitats, social organization, and a suite of morphological features.

Work that examines and evaluates the extent of morphological and behavioral variation among the subspecies of Gorilla is important for a number of reasons. Western lowland gorillas are more arboreal than previously thought (e.g., Fay, 1989; Fay et al., 1989; Remis, 1995, 1998), while mountain gorillas are more terrestrial and climb trees less (Akeley, 1929; Schaller, 1963; Fossey, 1983; Watts, 1984; Tuttle and Watts, 1985; Doran, 1996). Morphological differences in the postcranium presumably relate to differences between mountain and western lowland gorillas in postural and locomotor behavior, associated with greater arboreality in the latter. Although some studies have examined the subspecific morphological variation of the postcranium in adult Gorilla (e.g., Schultz, 1927, 1930, 1934; Groves, 1972; Jungers and Susman, 1984; Larson, 1995; Sarmiento and Marcus, 2000) we need to supplement these studies of variation in mountain and lowland gorilla postcrania from an ontogenetic perspective (Inouye, 1992, 1994a, b; Taylor, 1995, 1997a, b; Inouye and Shea, 1997).

Type
Chapter
Information
Gorilla Biology
A Multidisciplinary Perspective
 , pp. 194 - 236
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2002

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Akeley, C. E. (1929). In Brightest Africa. New York: Doubleday
Albrecht, G. H. and Miller, J. M. A. (1993). Geographic variation in primates: A review with implications for interpreting fossils. In Species, Species Concepts, and Primate Evolution, eds. W. H. Kimbel and L. B. Martin, pp. 123–161. New York: Plenum PressCrossRef
Arnold, S. J. (1981). Behavioral variation in natural populations. I: Phenotypic, genetic and environmental correlations among chemoreceptive responses to prey in the garter snake, Thamnophis elegans. Evolution, 35, 489–509CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atchley, W. R., Rutledge, J. J., and Cowley, D. E. (1981). Genetic components of size and shape. II: Multivariate covariance patterns in the rat and mouse skull. Evolution, 35, 1037–1055CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Badrian, A. and Badrian, N. (1977). Pygmy chimpanzees. Oryx, 14, 463–472Google Scholar
Bock, W. J. (1980). The definition and recognition of biological adaptation. American Zoologist, 20, 217–227CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carrier, D. R. (1983). Postnatal ontogeny of the musculo-skeletal system in the Black-tailed jack rabbit (Lepus californicus). Journal of Zoology, London, 201, 27–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carroll, R. W. (1996). Feeding ecology of lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in the Dzanga-Sangha Dense Forest Reserve of the Central African Republic. Mammalia, 52, 311–323Google Scholar
Cheverud, J. M. (1982). Relationships among ontogenetic, static, and evolutionary allometry. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 59, 139–149CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clutton-Brock, T. H. and Harvey, P. H. (1977a). Species differences in feeding and ranging behavior in primates. In Primate Ecology: Studies of Feeding and Ranging Behavior in Lemurs, Monkeys and Apes, ed. T. H. Clutton-Brock, pp. 556–584. London: Academic Press
Clutton-Brock, T. H. and Harvey, P. H. (1977 b). Primate ecology and social organization. Journal of Zoology, London, 183, 1–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H. and Harvey, P. H. (1983). The functional significance of variation in body size among mammals. In Advances in the Study of Mammalian Behavior, eds. J. F. Eisenberg and D. G. Kleiman, pp. 632–665. New York: American Society of Mammalogy
Cock, A. G. (1966). Genetical aspects of metrical growth and form in animals. Quarterly Review of Biology, 41, 131–190CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coolidge, H. J. (1929). A revision of the genus Gorilla. Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard, 50, 291–383Google Scholar
Coolidge, H. J. (1936). Zoological results of the George Vanderbilt African expedition of 1934. IV: Notes on four gorillas from the Sanga River Region. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadephia, 88, 479–501Google Scholar
Dainton, M. and Macho, G. A. (1999). Did knuckle walking evolve twice?Journal of Human Evolution, 36, 171–194CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, R. G. and Brown, V. (1972). A multivariate analysis of postembryonic growth in two species ofEctobius (Dictyoptera: Blattidae). Journal of Zoology, London, 168, 51–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doran, D. M. (1996). The comparative and positional behavior of the African apes. In Great Ape Societies, eds. W. C. McGrew and T. Nishida, pp. 213–224. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University PressCrossRef
Doran, D. M. and Hunt, K. D. (1994). Comparative locomotor behavior of chimpanzees and bonobos. In Chimpanzee Cultures, eds. R. W. Wrangham, W. C. McGrew, F. B. M. DeWaal, and P. G. Heltne, pp. 93–108. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
Emmons, L. H., Gautier-Hion, A., and Dubost, G. (1983). Community structure of the frugivorous–folivorous forest mammals of Gabon. Journal of the Zoological Society of London, 199, 209–222CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, F. G. and Krahl, V. E. (1945). The torsion of the humerus: A phylogenetic survey from fish to man. American Journal of Anatomy, 76, 303–337CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fay, J. M. (1989). Partial completion of a census of the western lowland gorilla (Gorilla g. gorilla (Savage and Wyman)) in southwestern Central African Republic. Mammalia, 53, 203–215CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fay, J. M., Agnagna, M., Moore, J., and Oko, R. (1989). Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in the Likouala Swamp forests of north central Congo: Preliminary data on populations and ecology. International Journal of Primatology, 10, 477–486CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleagle, J. G. (1985). Size and adaptation in primates. In Size and Scaling in Primate Biology, ed. W. L. Jungers, pp. 1–19. New York: Plenum PressCrossRef
Fleagle, J. G. (1988). Primate Adaptation and Evolution. San Diego, CA: Academic Press
Fossey, D. (1982). Reproduction among free-living mountain gorillas. American Journal of Primatology, Supplement 1, 97–104CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fossey, D. (1983). Gorillas in the Mist. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Futuyma, D. J. (1979). Evolutionary Biology. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates
Gelvin, B. R., Albrecht, G. H., and Miller, J. M. A. (1997). The hierarchy of craniometric variation among gorillas. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Supplement 24, 117Google Scholar
Godfrey, L. R., King, S. J., and Sutherland, M. R. (1998). Heterochronic approaches to the study of locomotion. In Primate Locomotion, eds. E. Strasser, J. Fleagle, A. Rosenberger, and H. McHenry, pp. 277–308. New York: Plenum PressCrossRef
Gould, S. J. (1966). Allometry and size in ontogeny and phylogeny. Biological Reviews, 41, 587–640CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gould, S. J. (1975). Allometry in primates, with emphasis on scaling and the evolution of the brain. Contributions to Primatology, 5, 244–292Google Scholar
Gould, S. J. and Lewontin, R. C. (1979). The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: A critique of the adaptationist programme. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, 205, 581–598CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grand, T. I. (1983). The anatomy of growth and its relation to locomotor capacity in Macaca. In Advances in the Study of Mammalian Behavior, eds. J. F Eisenberg and D. G. Kleiman, pp. 5–24. New York: American Society of Mammalogy
Groves, C. P. (1967). Ecology and taxonomy of the gorilla. Nature, 213, 890–893CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Groves, C. P. (1970a). Gorillas. New York: Arco Publishing Co.
Groves, C. P. (1970 b). Population systematics of the gorilla. Journal of Zoology, London, 161, 287–300CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Groves, C. P. (1971). Distribution and place of origin of the gorilla. Man, 6, 44–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Groves, C. P. (1972). Phylogeny and classification of primates. In Pathology of Simian Primates, vol. 1, ed. R. N. Twistleton-Wichham-Fiennes, pp. 11–57. Basel Switzerland: S. KargerCrossRef
Harvey, P. H. and Pagel, M. D. (1991). The Comparative Method in Evolutionary Biology. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press
Huxley, J. S. (1932). Problems of Relative Growth. London: MacVeagh
Inouye, S. E. (1992). Ontogeny and allometry of African apes manual rays. Journal of Human Evolution, 23, 107–138CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inouye, S. E. (1994a). The ontogeny of knuckle-walking behavior and associated morphology in the African apes. PhD thesis, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL
Inouye, S. E. (1994 b). Ontogeny of knuckle-walking hand postures in African apes. Journal of Human Evolution, 26, 459–486CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inouye, S. E. and Shea, B. T. (1997). What's your angle? Size-correction and bar-glenoid orientation in “Lucy- (A. L. 288–1). International Journal of Primatology, 18, 629–650CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jain, S. K. (1979). Adaptive strategies: Polymorphism, plasticity, and homeostasis. In Topics in Plant Population Biology, eds. O. T. Solbrig, S. Jain, G. B. Johnson, and P. H. Raven, pp. 160–187. New York: Columbia University PressCrossRef
Jones, C. and Sabater Pi, J. (1971). Comparative ecology ofGorilla gorilla (Savage and Wyman) andPan troglodytes (Blumenbach) in Rio Muni, West Africa. Biblioteca Primatologia, 13, 1–96Google Scholar
Jungers, W. L. and Fleagle, J. G. (1980). Postnatal growth allometry of the extremities inCebus albifrons andCebus apella: A longitudinal and comparative study. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 53, 471–478CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jungers, W. L. and Susman, R. L. (1984). Body size and skeletal allometry in African apes. In The Pygmy Chimpazee: Evolutionary Biology and Behavior, ed. R. L. Susman, pp. 131–177. New York: Plenum PressCrossRef
Kano, T. (1980). Social behavior of the wild pygmy chimpanzees (Pan paniscus) of Wamba: A preliminary report. Journal of Human Evolution, 9, 243–260CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kay, R. F. (1981). The nut-crackers: A new theory of the adaptations of the Ramapithecinae. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 55, 141–151CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keith, A. (1926). The gorilla and man as contrasted forms. Lancet, 210, 490–492CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuroda, S. (1979). Grouping of the pygmy chimpanzees. Primates, 20, 161–183CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuroda, S. (1980). Social behavior of the pygmy chimpanzees. Primates, 21, 181–197CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lande, R. (1979). Quantitative genetic analysis of multivariate evolution, applied to brain: body allometry. Evolution, 33, 402–416Google Scholar
Larson, S. G. (1988). Subscapularis function in gibbons and chimpanzees: Implications for interpretation of humeral head torsion in hominoids. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 76, 449–462CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Larson, S. G. (1995). New characters for the functional interpretation of primate scapulae and proximal humeri. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 98, 13–35CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leigh, S. R. (1992). Ontogeny and body size dimorphism in anthropoid primates. PhD thesis, Northwestern University
Leigh, S. R. and Shea, B. T. (1995). Ontogeny and the evolution of adult body size dimorphism in apes. American Journal of Primatology, 36, 37–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leigh, S. R. and Shea, B. T. (1996). Ontogeny of body size variation in African apes. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 99, 43–653.0.CO;2-0>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacKinnon, J. (1978). The Ape Within Us. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston
Marshall, D. R. and Jain, S. K. (1968). Phenotypic plasticity ofAvena fatua andA. barbata. American Naturalist, 102, 457–467CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, R. D. (1989). Size, shape and evolution. In Evolutionary Studies: A Centenary Celebration of the Life of Julian Huxley, eds. M. Keynes and G. A. Harrison, pp. 96–141. Basingstoke, U.K.: MacmillanCrossRef
McMahon, T. A. and Bonner, J. T. (1983). On Size and Life. New York: Scientific American Library
Morton, D. J. (1924). Evolution of the human foot. II. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 5, 305–336CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morton, D. J. (1927). Human origin: Correlation of previous studies of primate feet and posture with other morphological evidence. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 10, 173–203CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neff, N. A. and Marcus, L. F. (1980). A Survey of Multivariate Methods for Systematics. New York: privately published
Nishihara, T. (1995). Feeding ecology of western lowland gorillas in the Nouabale-Ndoki National Park, Congo. Primates, 36, 151–168CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oxnard, C. E. (1978). One biologist's view of morphometrics. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 9, 219–241CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pagel, M. D. and Harvey, P. H. (1988). Recent developments in the analysis of comparative data. Quarterly Review of Biology, 63, 413–440CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peters, S. E. (1983). Postnatal development of gait behavior and functional allometry in the domestic cat (Felis catus). Journal of Zoology, London, 199, 461–486CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pilbeam, D. and Gould, S. J. (1974). Size and scaling in human evolution. Science, 186, 892–901CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pounds, J. A., Jackson, J. F., and Shively, S. H. (1983). Allometric growth of the hind limbs of some terrestrial iguanid lizards. American Naturalist, 110, 201–207CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Remis, M. (1995). Effects of body size and social context on the arboreal activities of lowland gorillas in the Central African Republic. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 97, 413–433CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Remis, M. (1998). The gorilla paradox: The effects of body size and habitat on the positional behavior of lowland and mountain gorillas. In Primate Locomotion, eds. E. Strasser, J. Fleagle, A. Rosenberger, and H. McHenry, pp. 95–106. New York: Plenum PressCrossRef
Remis, M. (1999). Tree structure and sex differences in arboreality among western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) at Bai Hokou, Central African Republic. Primates, 40, 383–396CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richmond, B. G. and Strait, D. S. (2000). Evidence that humans evolved from a knuckle-walking ancestor. Nature, 404, 382–385CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ruvolo, M., Pan, D., Zehr, S., Goldberg, T., Disotell, T. R., and Dornum, M. (1994). Gene trees and hominoid phylogeny. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A., 91, 8900–8904CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sarmiento, E. E. and Marcus, L. F. (2000). The os navicular of humans, great apes, OH 8, Hadar, and Oreopithecus: Function, phylogeny, and multivariate analyses. American Museum Novitates, 32882.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Savage, E. S., Wilkerson, B. J., and Bakeman, R. (1977). A spontaneous gestural communication among conspecifics in the pygmy chimpanzee (Pan paniscus). In Progress in Ape Research, ed. O. H. Bourne, pp. 97–116. New York: Academic Press
Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S. and Wilkerson, B. J. (1978). Socio-sexual behavior inPan paniscus andPan troglodytes: A comparative study. Journal of Human Evolution, 7, 327–344CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaller, G. (1963). The Mountain Gorilla: Ecology and Behavior. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
Schemske, D. W. and Bradshaw, H. D. Jr. (1999). Pollinator preference and the evolution of floral traits in monkeyflowers (Mimulus). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A., 96, 11910–11915CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schlichting, C. D. and Pigliucci, M. (1998). Phenotypic Evolution: A Reaction Norm Perspective. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates
Schmidt-Nielsen, K. (1984) Scaling: Why Is Animal Size So Important? Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press
Schultz, A. H. (1927). Studies on the growth of the gorilla and of other higher primates, with special reference to a fetus of gorilla, preserved in the Carnegie Museum. Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum, 11, 1–87Google Scholar
Schultz, A. H. (1930). The skeleton of the trunk and limbs of higher primates. Human Biology, 2, 303–438Google Scholar
Schultz, A. H. (1934). Some distinguishing characters of the mountain gorilla. Journal of Mammalogy, 12, 15–61Google Scholar
Schultz, A. H. (1968). The recent hominoid primates. In Perspectives on Human Evolution, vol. 1, eds. S. L. Washburn and P. Jay, pp. 122–195. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston
Shea, B. T. (1981). Relative growth of the limbs and trunk of the African apes. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 56, 179–202CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shea, B. T. (1983 a). Size and diet in the evolution of African ape craniodental form. Folia Primatologia, 40, 32–68CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shea, B. T. (1983 b). Phyletic size change and brain/body scaling: A consideration based on the African pongids and other primates. International Journal of Primatology, 4, 33–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shea, B. T. (1984). An allometric perspective on the morphological and evolutionary relationships between pygmy (Pan paniscus) and common (Pan troglodytes) chimpanzees. In The Pygmy Chimpazee: Evolutionary Biology and Behavior, ed. R. L. Susman, pp. 89–130. New York: Plenum PressCrossRef
Shea, B. T. (1985 a). Bivariate and multivariate growth allometry: Statistical and biological considerations. Journal of Zoology, London, 206, 367–390CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shea, B. T. (1985b). Ontogenetic allometry and scaling: A discussion based on growth and form of the skull in African apes. In Size and Scaling in Primate Biology, ed. W. L. Jungers, pp. 175–206. New York: Plenum Press
Shea, B. T. (1986). Scapula form and locomotion in chimpanzee evolution. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 70, 475–488CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shea, B. T. (1987). Reproductive strategies, body size, and encephalization in primate evolution. International Journal of Primatology, 8, 139–156CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shea, B. T. (1990). Dynamic morphology: Growth, life history, and ecology in primate evolution. In Primate Life History and Evolution, ed. C. J. DeRousseau, pp. 325–352. New York: Wiley-Liss
Shea, B. T. (1995). Ontogenetic scaling and size correction in the comparative study of primate adaptations. Anthropologie, 33, 1–2, 1–16Google Scholar
Shea, B. T. and Bailey, R. C. (1996). Allometry and adaptation of body proportions and stature in African pygmy chimpanzees: Size correction in the comparative study of primate adaptations. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 100, 311–3403.0.CO;2-X>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shea, B. T. and Inouye, S. E. (1993). Knuckle-walking ancestors. Science, 259, 293–294CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shea, B. T., Leigh, S. R., and Groves, C. P. (1993). Multivariate craniometric variation in chimpanzees. In Species, Species Concepts, and Primate Evolution, eds. W. H. Kimbel and L. B. Martin, pp. 265–296. New York: Plenum PressCrossRef
Smith, R. J. (1984 a). Determination of relative size: The “criterion of subtraction- problem in allometry. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 108, 131–142CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, R. J. (1984 b). Allometric scaling in comparative biology: Problems of concept and method. American Journal of Physiology, 246, R152–R160Google ScholarPubMed
Smith, R. J. and Jungers, W. L. (1997). Body mass in comparative primatology. Journal of Human Evolution, 32, 523–559CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, J. T. Jr. and Susman, R. L. (1983). The locomotor anatomy of Australopithecus afarensis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 60, 279–317CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Susman, R. L. (1974). Facultative terrestrial hand postures in an orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) and pongid evolution. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 40, 27–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Susman, R. L. (1979). Comparative and functional morphology of hominoid fingers. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 50, 215–236CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Susman, R. L. and Creel, N. (1979). Functional and morphological affinities of the subadult hand (O.H. 7) from Olduvai Gorge. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 51, 311–332CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Susman, R. L., Stern, J. T. Jr., and Jungers, W. L. (1984). Arboreality and bipedality in Hadar hominids. Folia Primatologia, 43, 113–156CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, A. B. (1995). Scapula morphology in the mountain gorilla. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 98, 431–445CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, A. B. (1997 a). Scapula form and biomechanics in gorillas. Journal of Human Evolution, 33, 529–553CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, A. B. (1997 b). Relative growth, ontogeny, and sexual dimorphism in gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla andG.g. beringei): Evolutionary and ecological considerations. American Journal of Primatology, 43, 1–313.0.CO;2-0>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tutin, C. E. G. and Fernandez, M. (1984 a). Nationwide census of gorilla (Gorilla g. gorilla) and chimpanzee (Pan t. troglodytes) populations in Gabon. American Journal of Primatology, 6, 313–336CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tutin, C. E. G. and Fernandez, M. (1984 b). Ape census in Gabon. Primate Eye, 21, 16–17Google Scholar
Tuttle, R. H. (1967). Knuckle-walking and the evolution of hominoid hands. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 26, 171–206CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tuttle, R. H. (1969 a). Knuckle-walking and the problem of human origins. Science, 166, 953–961CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tuttle, R. H. (1969 b). Quantitative and functional studies on the hands of the Anthropoidea and the Hominoidea. Journal of Morphology, 128, 309–364CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tuttle, R. H. (1969c). Terrestrial trends in the hands of the Anthropoidea. In Proceedings of the 2ndInternational Congress of Primatology, Atlanta, 1968, vol. 2, pp. 192–200. Basel, Switzerland: S. Karger
Tuttle, R. H. (1970). Postural, propulsive and prehensile capabilities in the cheiridia of chimpanzees and other great apes. In The Chimpanzee, vol. 2, ed. G. H. Bourne, pp. 167–253. Basel, Switzerland: S. Karger
Tuttle, R. H. (1972). Relative mass of cheiridial muscles in catarrhine primates. In The Functional and Evolutionary Biology of Primates, ed. R. H. Tuttle, pp. 262–291. The Hague: Mouton
Tuttle, R. H. (1975). Knuckle-walking and knuckle-walkers: A commentary on some recent perspectives on hominoid evolution. In Primate Functional Morphology and Evolution, ed. R. H. Tuttle, pp. 203–212. The Hague: MoutonCrossRef
Tuttle, R. H. (1976). Knuckling behavior in captive orangutans and a wounded baboon. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 45, 123–134Google Scholar
Tuttle, R. H. (1986). Apes of the World: Studies on the Lives of Great Apes and Gibbons, 1929–1985. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes
Tuttle, R. H. and Basmajian, J. V. (1974). Electromyography of forearm musculature in Gorilla and problems related to knuckle-walking. In Primate Locomotion, ed. F. A. Jenkins, Jr., pp. 293–347. New York: Academic PressCrossRef
Tuttle, R. H. and Watts, D. P. (1985). The positional behavior and adaptive complexes of Pan and Gorilla. In Primate Morphophysiology, Locomotor Analyses and Human Bipedalism, ed. S. Kondo, pp. 261–288. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press
Washburn, S. L. (1967). Behavior and the origin of man. Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 3, 21–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watts, D. P. (1984). Composition and variation of mountain gorilla diets in the Central Virungas. American Journal of Primatology, 7, 323–3556CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×