1 - Introduction
Literacy Development – A Global Perspective
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 23 November 2023
Summary
In this introductory chapter, we examine the worldwide distribution of literacy, its development with schooling, and the sources of individual variation in literacy outcomes. Various perspectives on global variation are discussed while also aiming for a common framework to describe literacy development that recognizes demographic boundaries in the world, on the one hand, and its global variation as a function of bio-ecological markers on the other hand. In this introduction, we draw attention to the wealth of recent research on variations in literacy development that arise across regions and that reflect the multiple interrelated influences of individual, home, school, and societal factors. Furthermore, observations on the neurobiological and ecological markers related to global literacy are discussed. These include the role of writing systems, genetics, brain foundations, self-regulation, and sociocultural, contextual, teacher, and parental factors in global literacy development. An explanatory framework is also provided showing that literacy development involves gaining reading fluency and spelling to facilitate reading comprehension and writing, that it builds on language, and that child characteristics and home- and school-support factors combine to influence individual variation, within an indirectly influential sociopolitical context.
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- Global Variation in Literacy Development , pp. 1 - 30Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2023
References
Berman, R. A., & Verhoeven, L. (2002). Cross-linguistic perspectives on the development of text-production abilities. Written Language and Literacy, 5, 1–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berninger, V. W., & Winn, W. D. (2006). Implications of advancements in brain research and technology for writing development, writing instruction, and educational evolution. In MacArthur, C. A., Graham, S., & Fitzgerald, J. (eds.), Handbook of writing research (pp. 96–114). New York: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Berninger, V., Vaughan, K., Abbott, R. et al. (2002). Teaching spelling and composition alone and together: Implications for the simple view of writing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 291–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bhide, A., Luo, W., Vijay, N. et al. (2019). Improving Hindi decoding skills via a mobile game. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 32, 2149–2178. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-019-09934-x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E. (2001). Bilingualism in Development: Language, Literacy, and Cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511605963.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borgonovi, F., & Montt, G. (2012). Parental involvement in selected PISA countries and economies. OECD Education Working Papers 73. Paris: OECD Publishing. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1787/5k990rk0jsjj-en.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broer, M., Bai, Y., & Fonseca, F. (2019) A review of the literature on socioeconomic status and educational achievement. In Socioeconomic Inequality and Educational Outcomes. IEA Research for Education. Series of In-depth Analyses Based on Data of the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement, vol 5. Cham: Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11991-1_2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (2005). The developing ecology of human development: Paradigm lost or paradigm regained. In Bronfenbrenner, U. (ed.), Making Human Beings Human: Bioecological Perspectives on Human Development (pp. 94–105). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Ceci, S. J. (1994). Nature-nurture reconceptualized in developmental perspective: A bioecological model. Psychological Review, 101, 568–586.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Butvilovsky, S. A., Escamilla, K., Gumina, D., & Silva Diaz, E. (2021). Beyond monolingual reading assessments for emerging bilingual learners: Expanding the understanding of biliteracy assessment through writing. Reading Research Quarterly, 56, 53–70. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cain, K., & Barnes, M. A. (2017). Reading comprehension: What develops and when? In Cain, K., Compton, D., & Parrila, R. (eds.), Theories of Reading Development (pp. 257–282). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carver, R. P. (1993). Merging the simple view of reading with rauding theory. Journal of Reading Behavior, 25(4), 439–455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19, 5–51. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100618772271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, X., Dronjic, V., & Helms-Park, R. (2016). Reading in a Second Language: Cognitive and Psycholinguistic Issues. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Chenoweth, N. A., & Hayes, J. R. (2001). Fluency in writing generating text in L1 and L2. Written Communication, 18, 80–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, E. (2004). How language acquisition builds on cognitive development. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8, 472–478.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coltheart, M., Rastle, K., Perry, C., Langdon, R., & Ziegler, J. (2001). DRC: A dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud. Psychological Review, 108, 204–256. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.108.1.204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of Educational Research, 49(2), 222–251. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1169960.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, J. (1991). Interdependence of first- and second-language proficiency in bilingual children. In Bialystok, E. (ed.), Language Processing in Bilingual Children (pp. 70–89). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511620652.006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cutting, L. E., Materek, A., Cole, C. A. S., Levine, T. M., & Mahone, E. M. (2009). Effects of fluency, oral language, and executive function on reading comprehension performance. Annals of Dyslexia, 59, 34–54. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11881-009-0022-0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Cat, C. (2020). Predicting language proficiency in bilingual children. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 42, 279–325. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0272263119000597.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dearing, E., Kreider, H., Simpkins, S., & Weiss, H. B. (2006). Family involvement in school and low-income children’s literacy performance: Longitudinal associations between and within families. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 653–664.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dickinson, D. K., & Neuman, S. B. (2006). Handbook of Early Literacy Research. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Dolean, D., Melby-Lervag, M., Tincas, I., Damsa, C., & Lervag, A. (2019). Achievement gap: Socioeconomic status affects reading development beyond language and cognition in children facing poverty. Learning and Instruction, 63, e0101218. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2019.101218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dong, Y., Wu, S. X.-Y., Dong, W.-Y., & Tang, Y. (2020). The effects of home literacy environment on children’s reading comprehension development: A meta-analysis. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 20, 63–82. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12738/jestp.2020.2.005.Google Scholar
Droop, M., & Verhoeven, L. (2003). Language proficiency and reading comprehension in first and second language learners. Reading Research Quarterly, 38, 78–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durgunoglu, A., & Goldenberg, C. (2011). Language and Literacy Development in Bilingual Settings. New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Ehri, L., Nunes, R. S., Willows, D. et al. (2001). Phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 36, 250–287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ehri, L. C. (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings and issues. Scientific Studies of Reading, 9, 167–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Englund, M. M., Luckner, A. E., Whaley, G. J. L., & Egeland, B. (2004). Children’s achievement in early elementary school: Longitudinal effects of parental involvement, expectations, and quality of assistance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(4), 723–730. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.96.4.723.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
European Union. (2019). PISA 2018 and the EU. Brussels: Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture.Google Scholar
Fishman, J. A. (1999). Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
French, R. M., & Jacquet, M. (2004). Understanding bilingual memory: Models and data. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(2), 87–93. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2003.12.011.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geva, E., & Verhoeven, L. (2000). Introduction: The development of second language reading in primary children. Scientific Studies of Reading, 4, 261–266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goody, J. (1968). Literacy in Traditional Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Goswami, U. (2000). Phonological and lexical processes. In Kamil, M. L., Rosenthal, P. B., Pearson, P. D., & Barr, R. (eds.), Handbook of Reading Research, Vol. III, pp. 251–268). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Graham, S., Morphy, P., Harris, K. R. et al. (2008). Teaching spelling in the primary grades: A national survey of instructional practices and adaptations. American Educational Research Journal, 45(3), 796–825. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831208319722.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grigorenko, E. L. (2022). The role of genetic factors in reading and its development across languages and writing systems. Scientific Studies of Reading, 26(2), 96–110. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2022.2033244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guthrie, J. T., & Humenick, N. M. (2004). Motivating students to read: Evidence for classroom practices that increase reading motivation and achievement. In McCardle, P. & Chhabra, V. (eds.), The Voice of Evidence in Reading Research (pp. 329–354). Washington, DC: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.Google Scholar
Hayes, J. R. (2012). My past and present as writing researcher and thoughts about the future of writing research. In Berninger, V. W. (ed.), Past, Present, and Future Contributions of Cognitive Writing Research to Cognitive Psychology (pp. 3-26).New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Hindman, A. H., Skibbe, L. E., Miller, A., & Zimmerman, M. (2010). Ecological contexts and early learning: Contributions of child, family, and classroom factors during Head Start to literacy and mathematics growth through first grade. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25, 235–250.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoeft, F., & Wang, C. (2019). Intergenerational transmission in developmental dyslexia. In Verhoeven, L., Perfetti, C., & Pugh, K. (eds.) Developmental Dyslexia across Languages and Writing Systems (pp. 413–438). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoover, W. A., & Gough, P. B. (1990). The simple view of reading. Reading and Writing, 2, 127–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, A. D., Martin, A., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Petrill, S. A. (2008). Order in the house! Associations among household chaos, the home literacy environment, maternal reading ability, and children’s early reading. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 54, 445–472. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/mpq.0.0009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kieffer, M. J., Vukovic, R. K., & Berry, D. (2013). Roles of attention shifting and inhibitory control in fourth‐grade reading comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 48, 333–348.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kinzer, C., & Verhoeven, L. (eds.) (2007). Interactive Literacy Education: Facilitating Literacy Environments through Technology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Korat, O. (2005). Contextual and non-contextual knowledge in emergent literacy development: A comparison between children from low SES and middle SES communities. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 20(2), 220–238. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2005.04.009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lehto, J. E., Juujärvi, P., Kooistra, L., & Pulkkinen, L. (2003). Dimensions of executive functioning: Evidence from children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 21, 59–80. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1348/026151003321164627.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lemberger, N., & Reyes-Carrasquillo, A. (2011). Perspectives on teacher quality: Bilingual education and ESL teacher certification, test-taking experiences, and instructional practices. Journal of Multilingual Education Research, 2, Article 5. https://research.library.fordham.edu/jmer/vol2/iss1/5.Google Scholar
Lervåg, A., Hulme, C., & Melby-Lervåg, M. (2018). Unpicking the developmental relationship between oral language skills and reading comprehension: It’s simple, but complex. Child Development, 8, 1821–1838. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12861.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lesaux, N. K., & Geva, E. (2006). Synthesis: Development of literacy in language-minority students. In August, D. & Shanahan, T. (eds.), Developing Literacy in Second-Language Learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth (pp. 53–74). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Lundberg, I., & Hoien, T. (2001). Dyslexia and phonology. In Fawcett, A. (ed.), Dyslexia: Theory and Good Practice (pp. 109–123). London: Whurr Publishers.Google Scholar
Manz, P. H., Hughes, C., Barnabas, E., Bracaliello, C., & Ginsburg-Block, M. (2010). A descriptive review and meta-analysis of family-based emergent literacy interventions: To what extent is the research applicable to low-income, ethnic-minority or linguistically- diverse young children? Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25, 409–431. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2010.03.002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McBride, C. A. (2016). Is Chinese special? Four aspects of Chinese literacy acquisition that might distinguish learning Chinese from learning alphabetic orthographies. Educational Psychology Review, 28(3), 523–549. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9318-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McBride-Chang, C., Tong, X., Shu, H., et al. (2008). Syllable, phoneme, and tone: Psycholinguistic units in early Chinese and English word recognition. Scientific Studies of Reading, 12, 171–194. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10888430801917290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendive, S., Lara, M. M., Aldoney, D., Perez, J. C. & Pezoa, J. P. (2020). Home language and literacy environments and early literacy trajectories of low-socioeconomic status Chilean children. Child Development, 91(6), 2042–2062.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Metsala, J. L., & Walley, A. C. (1998). Spoken vocabulary growth and the segmental restructuring of lexical representations: Precursors to phonemic awareness and early reading ability. In Metsala, J. L. & Ehri, L. C. (eds.), Word Recognition in Beginning Literacy (pp. 89–120). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson., M. J. et al. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “Frontal Lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734. PMID: 10945922.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mohanty, A. K. (2000). Perpetuating inequality: The disadvantage of language, minority mother tongues and related issues. In Mohanty, A. K. & Misra, G. (eds.), Psychology of Poverty and Disadvantage (pp. 104–117). New Delhi: Concept Publishing.Google Scholar
Nag, S. (2017). Learning to read alphasyllabaries. In Cain, K., Compton, D., & Parrila, R. (eds.), Theories of Reading Development (pp. 75–98). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nag, S. (2021). How children learn to use a writing system: Mapping evidence from an Indic orthography to written language in children’s books. Written Language and Literacy, 24, 284–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nag, S. (2022). Dyslexia and the dyslexia-like picture: Supporting all children in primary school. In Skeide, M. A. (ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Dyslexia and Dyscalculia (pp. 427–443). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nag, S., Chiat, S., Torgerson, C., & Snowling, M. (2014). Literacy, Foundation Learning and Assessment in Developing Countries: Final Report. London: EPPI-Centre, Social Science Research Unit, University of London. www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/305150/Literacy-foundation-learning-assessment.pdf.Google Scholar
Nag, S., & Narayanan, B. (2019). Orthographic knowledge, spelling and reading development in Tamil: The first three years. In Joshi, M. & McBride, C. (eds). Handbook of Literacy in Akshara Orthography (pp. 55–83). Dordrecht: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nag, S., & Snowling, M. (July 2011). Cognitive profiles of poor readers of Kannada. Reading and Writing: an Interdisciplinary Journal, 24(6), 657–676. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11145-010-9258-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nag, S., Snowling, M. J., & Asfaha, Y. (2016). Classroom literacy practices in low- and middle-income countries: An interpretative synthesis of ethnographic studies. Oxford Education Review, 42(1), 36–54. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2015.1135115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nag, S., Snowling, M., Quinlan, P., & Hulme, C. (2014). Child and symbol factors in learning to read a visually complex writing system. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18, 1–16. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2014.892489.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nag, S., Vagh, S., Dulay, K., & Snowling, M. (2018). Home language, school language and children’s literacy attainments: A systematic review of evidence from low‐ and middle‐income countries. Review of Education, 1(1), 91–150. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/rev3.3130.Google Scholar
NEP (National Education Policy). (2020). Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/NEP_Final_English_0.pdf.Google Scholar
NICHD (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development). (2000). Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and its Implications for Reading Instruction: Reports of the Subgroups. (NIH Publication No. 00–4754). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Olson, D. R. (2016). The Mind on Paper: Reading, Consciousness and Rationality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316678466.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perfetti, C., & Stafura, J. (2014). Word knowledge in a theory of reading comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(1), 22–37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2013.827687.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perfetti, C. A. (2003). The universal grammar of reading. Scientific Studies of Reading, 7, 3–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perfetti, C. A., & Hart, L. (2001). The lexical quality hypothesis. In Verhoeven, L., Elbro, C., & Reitsma, P. (eds.), Precursors of Functional Literacy (pp. 189–214). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Piasta, S. B., & Wagner, R. K. (2010). Developing early literacy skills: A meta-analysis of alphabet learning and instruction. Reading Research Quarterly, 45(1), 8–38. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.45.1.2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pressley, M., Wharton-MacDonald, R., Allington, R., et al. (2001). A study of effective first grade literacy instruction. Scientific Studies in Reading, 5, 35–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Puglisi, M. L., Hulme, C., Hamilton, L. G., & Snowling, M. J. (2017). The home literacy environment is a correlate, but perhaps not a cause, of variations in children’s language and literacy development. Scientific Studies of Reading, 21(6), 498–514. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2017.1346660.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quinn, J. M., & Wagner, R. K. (2018). Using meta-analytic structural equation modeling to study developmental change in relations between language and literacy. Child Development, 89, 1956–1969. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13049.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rolleston, C., James, Z., & Aurino, E. (2013). Exploring the Effect of Educational Opportunity and Inequality on learning Outcomes in Ethiopia, Peru, India and Vietnam. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000225938.Google Scholar
Roser, M., & Ortiz-Ospina, E. (2016). Literacy. OurWorldInData.org. https://ourworldindata.org/literacy.Google Scholar
Rowe, M., & Weisleder, A. (2020). Language development in context. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology 2, 201–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scarborough, H. S. (2005). Developmental relationships between language and reading: Reconciling a beautiful hypothesis with some ugly facts. In Catts, H. W. & Kamhi, A. G. (eds.), The Connections between Language and Reading Disabilities (pp. 3–24). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Seidenberg, M. (2017). Language at the Speed of Sight: How We Read, Why So Many Can’t, and What Can Be Done About It. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Sénéchal, M. (2006). Testing the home literacy model: Parent involvement in kindergarten is differentially related to Grade 4 reading comprehension, fluency, spelling, and reading for pleasure. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10, 59–87. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr1001_4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Share, D. L. (2004). Orthographic learning at a glance: On the time course and developmental onset of reading. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 87, 267–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silberstein, J. (2021). Measuring, visualising, and simulating solutions to the learning crisis: New evidence from learning profiles in 18 countries. Research on Improving Systems of Education (RISE). 2021/029. DOI: https://doi.org/10.35489/BSG-RISE-RI_2021/029.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, P., & Kumi-Yeboah, A. (2015). Handbook of Research on Cross-Cultural Approaches to Language and Literacy Development. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snowling, M. J. (2019) Dyslexia: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snowling, M. J., Nash, H. M., Gooch, D. C., Hayiou-Thomas, M. E., & Hulme, C. (2019). Developmental outcomes for children at high risk of dyslexia and children with developmental language disorder. Child Development, 90: e548-e564. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13216.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strasser, K., & Lissi, M. R. (2009). Home and instruction effects on emergent literacy in a sample of Chilean kindergarten children. Scientific Studies of Reading, 13, 175–204. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1088843090276952.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Street, B. (1994). The new literacy studies: Implications for education and pedagogy. Changing English, 1(1), 113–126. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1358684940010109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Street, B. V. (2001). Literacy and Development: Ethnographic Perspectives. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Street, B. V. (2005). Literacies across Educational Contexts: Mediating Learning and Teaching. Philadelphia: Caslon Publishing.Google Scholar
Thompson, K., Richardson, L. P., Newman, H., & George, K. (2019). Interaction effects of socioeconomic status on emerging literacy and literacy skills among pre-kindergarten and kindergarten children: A comparison study. Journal of Human Services: Training, Research, and Practice, 4(1), Article 5. https://scholarworks.sfasu.edu/jhstrp/vol4/iss1/5.Google Scholar
Tunmer, W. E., & Hoover, W. A. (1993). Phonological recoding skill and beginning reading. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 5(2), 161–179. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01027482.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vágvölgyi, R., Coldea, A., Dresler, T., Schrader, J., & Nuerk, H. C. (2016). A review about functional illiteracy: Definition, cognitive, linguistic, and numerical aspects. Frontiers Psychology, 10, 1617. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01617. PMID: 27891100; PMCID: PMC5102880.Google Scholar
van Goch, M. M., McQueen, J. M., & Verhoeven, L. (2014). Learning phonologically specific new words fosters rhyme awareness in Dutch preliterate children. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(3), 155–172. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2013.827199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verhoeven, L. (2007). Early bilingualism, language transfer, and phonological awareness. Applied Psycholinguistics, 28(3), 425–439.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verhoeven, L. (2010). Second language reading acquisition. In Kamil, M. L., Pearson, P. D., Moje, E. B., & Afflerbach, P. (eds.) Handbook of Reading Research (pp. 661–683). New York: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Verhoeven, L., &van Leeuwe, J. (2008). Predictors of text comprehension development. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 22, 407–423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verhoeven, L., & Perfetti, C. (2011). Vocabulary growth and reading skill. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15, 1–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verhoeven, L., & Perfetti, C. E. (2017). Learning to Read across Languages and Writing Systems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verhoeven, L., Perfetti, C. & Pugh, K. (2019). Developmental Dyslexia across Languages and Writing Systems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verhoeven, L., & Snow, C. (eds.) (2001). Literacy and Motivation. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verhoeven, L., Schnotz, W., & Paas, F. (2009). Cognitive load in interactive knowledge construction. Learning and Instruction, 19(5), 369–375. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.02.002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verhoeven, L. T. W., & van Leeuwe, J. (2012). The simple view of second language reading throughout the primary grades. Reading and Writing, 25(8), 1805–1818.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verhoeven, L. T. W., van Leeuwe, J., Irausquin, R. S., & Segers, P. C. J. (2016). The unique role of lexical accessibility in predicting kindergarten. Reading and Writing, 29, 591–608.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wagner, D. A. (1993). Literacy, Culture and Development: Becoming Literate in Morocco. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wagner, D. A. (2011). What happened to literacy? Historical and conceptual perspectives on literacy in UNESCO. International Journal of Educational Development, 31, 319–323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagner, D. A. (2017). Children’s reading in low-income countries. The Reading Teacher, 71(2), 127–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagner, D. A. (2018). Learning as Development: Rethinking International Education in a Changing World. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (1994). Development of reading-related phonological processing abilities: new evidence of bidirectional causality from a latent variable longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 30, 73–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walley, A. C. (1993). The role of vocabulary development in children’s spoken word recognition and segmentation ability. Developmental Review, 13, 286–350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wickens, C., & Sandlin, J. (2007). Literacy for what? Literacy for whom? The politics of literacy education and neocolonialism in UNESCO and World Bank–Sponsored Literacy Programs. Adult Education Quarterly, 5, 275–292. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0741713607302364CrossRefGoogle Scholar
WLF. (2015). The Economic and Social Cost of Illiteracy: A Snapshot of Literacy in a Global Context. Melbourne: World Literacy Foundation.Google Scholar
Wolf, M., & O’Brien, B. (2001). On issues of time, fluency, and intervention. In Fawcett, A. (ed.), Dyslexia: Theory and Good Practice (pp. 124–140). London: Whurr.Google Scholar
World Bank. (2019). Ending Learning Poverty: What Will it Take? Washington, DC: World Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/32553.Google Scholar