Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T21:23:38.431Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

5 - Prefrontal cortex: typical and atypical development

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 September 2009

By
Maureen Dennis
Edited by
Jarl Risberg  and
Jordan Grafman
Jarl Risberg
Affiliation:
Lunds Universitet, Sweden
Jordan Grafman
Affiliation:
National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
Get access

Summary

Introduction

The ability to bind the past and the future, to become privileged to the contents of other peoples' minds and to share with them the contents of our own minds, and to use both emotion and thought to guide how we make decisions and what we express socially, all make us uniquely human and able to reflect on our past, our present, our future, our own mind, and others' minds, and to experience emotions and modulate them with thought. In some manner, these abilities are associated with the normal function of the prefrontal cortex.

All cortex in front of the central sulcus is frontal cortex. The primary motor cortex (Brodmann area [BA] 4) is the area in front of the central sulcus (Figure 5.1). The premotor cortex and supplementary motor area (BA 6) lie in front of the primary motor cortex. Everything in front of BA 6 is prefrontal cortex: BA 8, 9, 10, 12, 44, 45, 46, 47, and 9/46. The anterior cingulate gyrus and the posteromedial orbitofrontal cortex are important limbic areas within the prefrontal cortex, and the central frontal lobes also contain the orbitofrontal olfactory area. Functionally, the prefrontal cortex consists of multimodal association cortex, with different architectonic areas having distinct connections with cortical, subcortical, and subtentorial structures (Petrides & Pandya, 2002).

The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (BA 46 and 9) is above and below the superior frontal sulcus, and is bordered posteriorly by Area 6 and anteriorly by the frontal polar cortex (BA 10).

Type
Chapter
Information
The Frontal Lobes
Development, Function and Pathology
 , pp. 128 - 162
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ackerly, S. (1964). A case of paranatal bilateral frontal lobe defect observed for thirty years. In The Frontal Granular Cortex and Behavior, ed. Warren, J. M. and Akert, K.. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, pp. 192–218.Google Scholar
Ackerly, S. & Benton, A. (1948). Report of a case of bilateral frontal lobe defect. Research Publications of the Association for Nervous and Mental Diseases, 27, 479–504.Google ScholarPubMed
Allen, G., Buxton, R., Wong, E. & Courchesne, E. (1997). Attentional activation of the cerebellum independent of motor involvement. Science, 275, 1940–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Appollonio, I., Grafman, J., Schwartz, V., Massaquoi, S. & Hallett, M. (1993). Memory in patients with cerebellar degeneration. Neurology, 43, 1536–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Band, G. P. H., Molen, M. W., Overtoom, C. C. E. & Verbaten, M. N. (2000). The ability to activate and inhibit speeded responses: Separate developmental trends. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 75, 263–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnes, M. A. & Dennis, M. (2001). Knowledge-based inferencing after childhood head injury. Brain and Language, 76, 253–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bechara, A. (2004). The role of emotion in decision-making: Evidence from neurological patients with orbital frontal damage. Brain and Cognition, 55, 30–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bibby, H. & McDonald, S. (2005). Theory of mind after traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychologia, 43, 99–114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bird, C. M., Castelli, F., Malik, O., Frith, U. & Husain, M. (2004). The impact of extensive medial frontal lobe damage on “Theory of Mind” and cognition. Brain, 127, 914–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bjorklund, D. F. & Harnishfeger, K. K. (1990). The resources construct in cognitive development: Diverse sources of evidence and a theory of inefficient inhibition. Developmental Review, 10, 48–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behaviour. Brain and Cognition, 55, 198–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broca, P. (1877). Sur le cerveau à l'état foetal. Discussion. Societé d'Anthropologie de Paris, 2, 217–22.Google Scholar
Buck, R. (1994a). Social and emotional functions in facial expression and communication: The readout hypothesis. Biological Psychology, 38, 59–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buck, R. (1994b). The neuropsychology of communication: Spontaneous and symbolic aspects. Journal of Pragmatics, 22, 265–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bunge, S. A., Ochsner, K. N., Desmond, J. E., Glover, G. H. & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2001). Prefrontal regions involved in keeping information in and out of mind. Brain, 124, 2074–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cabeza, R. & Nyberg, L. (2000). Imaging cognition II: An empirical review of 275 PET and fMRI studies. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 1–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ceci, S. J. & Bronfenbrenner, U. (1985). “Don't forget to take the cupcakes out of the oven”: Prospective memory, strategic time-monitoring, and context. Child Development, 56, 152–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chapman, S. B., Culhane, K. A., Levin, H. S., et al. (1992). Narrative discourse after closed head injury in children and adolescents. Brain and Language, 43, 42–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cowan, N. (1997). The development of working memory. In The Development of Memory in Childhood, ed. Cowan, N. & Hulme, C.. Hove, UK: Psychology Press, pp. 163–200.Google Scholar
Crick, N. R. & Dodge, K. A. (1994). A review and reformulation of social-information processing mechanisms in children's social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 74–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crone, E. A. & Molen, M. W. (2004). Developmental changes in real life decision making: Performance on a gambling task previously shown to depend on the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Developmental Neuropsychology, 25, 251–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Culhane-Shelburne, K., Chapieski, L., Hiscock, M. & Glaze, D. (2002). Executive functions in children with frontal and temporal lobe epilepsy. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8, 623–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Damasio, H., Graboski, T., Frank, R., Galaburda, A. M. & Damasio, A. R. (1994). The return of Phineas Gage: Clues about the brain from the skull of a famous patient. Science, 264, 1102–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davidson, D. (1991). Children's decision-making examined with an information-board procedure. Cognitive Development, 6, 77–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Demetre, J. D., Lee, D. N., Pitcairn, T. K. & Grieve, R. (1992). Errors in young children's decisions about traffic gaps: Experiments with roadside simulations. British Journal of Psychology, 83, 189–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Demorest, A., Meyer, C., Phelps, E., Gardner, H. & Winner, E. (1984). Words speak louder than actions: Understanding deliberately false remarks. Child Development, 55, 1527–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dempster, F. N. (1993). Resistance to interference: Developmental changes in a basic processing mechanism. In Emerging Themes in Cognitive Development: Foundation, Vol. 1, ed. Howe, M. L. and Pasnak, R.. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, pp. 3–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dennis, M. (1988). Language and the young damaged brain. In Clinical Neuropsychology and Brain Function: Research, Measurement and Practice, Vol. 7, ed. Boll, T. and Bryant, B. K.. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 85–123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dennis, M. (1991). Frontal lobe function in childhood and adolescence: A heuristic for assessing attention regulation, executive control, and the intentional states important for social discourse. Developmental Neuropsychology, 7, 327–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dennis, M. (2000). Childhood medical disorders and cognitive impairment: Biological risk, time, development, and reserve. In Pediatric Neuropsychology: Research, Theory, and Practice, ed. Yeates, K. O., Ris, M. D. and Taylor, H. G.. New York, NY: Guilford Press, pp. 3–22.Google Scholar
Dennis, M. (2003). Acquired disorders of language in children. In Behavioural Neurology and Neuropsychology, ed. Feinberg, T. E. and Farah, M. J.. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Inc., pp. 783–99.Google Scholar
Dennis, M., Agostino, A., Roncadin, C., & Levin, H. (2006). Theory of mind depends on domain general executive functions of working memory and inhibitory control in children with closed head injury. Manuscript submitted for publication.Google Scholar
Dennis, M. & Barnes, M. A. (1990). Knowing the meaning, getting the point, bridging the gap, and carrying the message: Aspects of discourse following closed head injury in childhood and adolescence. Brain and Language, 39, 428–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dennis, M. & Barnes, M. A. (2000). Speech acts after mild or severe childhood head injury. Aphasiology, 14, 391–405.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dennis, M., Barnes, M. A., Donnelly, R. E., Wilkinson, M. & Humphreys, R. (1996). Appraising and managing knowledge: Metacognitive skills after childhood head injury. Developmental Neuropsychology, 12, 17–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dennis, M., Barnes, M. A., Wilkinson, M. & Humphreys, R. P. (1998). How children with head injury represent real and deceptive emotion in short narratives. Brain and Language, 61, 450–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dennis, M., Edelstein, K., Copeland, K., et al. (2005). Covert orienting to exogenous and endogenous cues in children with spina bifida. Neuropsychologia, 43, 976–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dennis, M., Edelstein, K., Hetherington, R., et al. (2004). Neurobiology of perceptual and motor timing in children with spina bifida in relation to cerebellar volume. Brain, 127, 1293–1301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dennis, M., Hetherington, C. R., Spiegler, B. J. & Barnes, M. A. (1999). Functional consequences of congenital cerebellar dysmorphologies and acquired cerebellar lesions of childhood. In The Changing Nervous System: Neurobehavioral Consequences of Early Brain Disorders, ed. Broman, S. H. and Fletcher, J. M.. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 172–98.Google Scholar
Dennis, M., Purvis, K., Barnes, M. A., Wilkinson, M. & Winner, E. (2001). Understanding of literal truth, ironic criticism, and deceptive praise after childhood head injury. Brain and Language, 78, 1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dennis, M., Spiegler, B., Riva, D. & MacGregor, D. (2004). Neuropsychological outcome. In Brain and Spinal Tumors of Childhood, ed. Walker, D., Perilongo, G., Punt, J. and Taylor, R.. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 213–27.Google Scholar
Dennis, M. & Whitaker, H. (1977). Hemispheric equipotentiality and language acquisition. In Language Development and Neurological Theory, ed. Segalowitz, S. and Gruber, F.. New York, NY: Academic Press, pp. 93–106.Google Scholar
Dennis, M., Wilkinson, M., Koski, L. & Humphreys, R. P. (1995). Attention deficits in the long term after childhood head injury. In Traumatic Head Injury in Children, ed. Broman, S. and Michel, M. E.. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 165–187.Google Scholar
Derrfuss, J., Brass, M. & Yves von Cramon, D. (2004). Cognitive control in the posterior frontolateral cortex: Evidence from common activations in task coordination, interference control, and working memory. NeuroImage, 23, 604–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
D'Esposito, M., Postle, B. R., Ballard, D. & Lease, J. (1999). Maintenance versus manipulation of information held in working memory: An event-related fMRI study. Brain and Cognition, 41, 66–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dews, S. & Winner, E. (1997). Attributing meaning to deliberately false utterances: The case of irony. In The Problem of Meaning: Behavioral and Cognitive Perspectives, ed. Mandell, C. and McCabe, A.. New York, NY: Elsevier Science, pp. 377–414.Google Scholar
Diamond, A. (1996). Evidence for the importance of dopamine for prefrontal cortex functions early in life. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, 351, 1483–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diamond, A. (2000). Close interrelation of motor development and cognitive development and of the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex. Child Development, 71, 44–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diamond, A., Briand, L., Fossella, J. & Gehlback, L. (2004). Genetic and neurochemical modulation of prefrontal cognitive functions in children. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 125–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diamond, A. & Taylor, C. (1996). Development of an aspect of executive control: Development of the abilities to remember what I said and to “Do as I say, not as I do”. Developmental Psychobiology, 29, 315–34.3.0.CO;2-T>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dowsett, S. M. & Livesey, D. J. (2000). The development of inhibitory control in preschool children: Effects of "executive skills' training. Developmental Psychobiology, 36, 161–74.3.0.CO;2-0>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dufresne, A. & Kobasigawa, A. (1989). Children's spontaneous allocation of study times: Differential and sufficient aspects. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 47, 274–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunn, R. P. & Strick, P. L. (2003). An unfolded map of the cerebellar dentate nucleus and its projections to the cerebral cortex. Journal of Neurophysiology, 89, 634–39.Google Scholar
Durston, S., Thomas, K. M., Yang, Y., et al. (2002). A neural basis for the development of inhibitory control. Developmental Science, 5, 9–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ekman, P. & Friesen, W. V. (1978). The facial action coding system: A technique for the measurement of facial action. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.Google Scholar
Engle, R. W., Conway, A. R. A., Tuholski, S. W. & Shisler, R. J. (1995). A resource account of inhibition. Psychological Science, 6, 122–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eslinger, P. J., Flaherty-Craig, C. V. & Benton, A. L. (2004). Developmental outcomes after early prefrontal cortex damage. Brain and Cognition, 55, 84–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eslinger, P. J., Grattan, L., Damasio, H. & Damasio, A. R. (1992). Developmental consequences of childhood frontal lobe damage. Archives of Neurology, 49, 764–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fiez, J., Petersen, S., Cheney, M. & Raichle, M. (1992). Impaired non-motor learning and error detection associated with cerebellar damage. Brain, 115, 155–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fine, C., Lumsden, J. & Blair, J. R. (2001). Dissociation between ‘theory of mind’ and executive functions in a patient with early left amygdala damage. Brain, 124, 287–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fivush, R. & Hamond, N. R. (1990). Autobiographical memory across the preschool years: Towards reconceptualizing childhood amnesia. In Knowing and Remembering in Young Children. Emory Symposium in Cognition, Vol. 3, ed. Hudson, J. A.. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 223–48.Google Scholar
Flavell, J. H., Green, F. L. & Flavell, E. R. (1985). The road not taken: Understanding the implications of initial uncertainty in evaluating spatial directions. Developmental Psychology, 21, 207–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fletcher, J. M., Copeland, K., Frederick, J., et al. (2005). Spinal lesion level in spina bifida: A source of neural and cognitive heterogeneity. Journal of Neurosurgery, 102, 268–79.Google ScholarPubMed
Fletcher, P., Happé, F., Frith, U., et al. (1995). Other minds in the brain: A functional imaging study of the ‘theory of mind’ in story comprehension. Cognition, 57, 109–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fletcher, P. C. & Henson, R. N. A. (2001). Frontal lobes and human memory. Brain, 124, 849–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fodor, J. (1983). The Modularity of Mind. Cambridge MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Friedman, N. P. & Miyake, A. (2004). The relations among inhibition and interference control executives: A latent-variable analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133, 101–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frye, D., Zelazo, P. D. & Palfai, T. (1995). Theory of mind and rule-based reasoning. Cognitive Development, 10, 483–527.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fuster, J. (2000). The prefrontal cortex of the primate. A synopsis. Psychobiology, 28, 125–31.Google Scholar
Garrity, L. I. (1975). An electromyographical study of subvocal speech and recall in preschool children. Developmental Psychology, 11, 274–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gazzeley, A., Cooney, J., McEvoy, K., Knight, R. & D'Esposito, M. (2005). Top-down enhancement and suppression of the magnitude and speed of neural activity. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17, 507–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerstadt, C. L., Hong, Y. J. & Diamond, A. (1994). The relationship between cognition and action: Performance of children 3.5–7 years old on a Stroop-like day-night test. Cognition, 53, 129–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gogtay, N., Giedd, J. N., Lusk, L., et al. (2004). Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 101, 8174–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldman-Rakic, P. S., Bourgeois, J.-P. & Rakic, P. (1997). Synaptic substrate of cognitive development: Life-span analysis of synaptogenesis in the prefrontal cortex of the nonhuman primate. In Development of the Prefrontal Cortex: Evolution, Neurobiology, and Behavior, ed. Krasnegor, N. A., Lyon, G. R. & Goldman-Rakic, P. S.. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes, pp. 27–47.Google Scholar
Goldman-Rakic, P. S. & Leung, H.-C. (2002). Functional architecture of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in monkeys and humans. In Principles of Frontal Lobe Function, ed. Stuss, D. T. and Knight, R. T.. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 31–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grafman, J. (1989). Plans, actions, and mental sets: Managerial knowledge units in the frontal lobes. In Integrative Theory and Practice in Neuropsychology, ed. Perecman, E.. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., pp. 93–138.Google Scholar
Grafman, J. (2002). The structured event complex and the human prefrontal cortex. In Principles of Frontal Lobe Function, ed. Stuss, D. T. and Knight, R. T.. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 209–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grafman, J., Litvan, I., Massaquoi, S., et al. (1992). Cognitive planning deficit in patients with cerebellar atrophy. Neurology, 42, 1493–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grattan, L. & Eslinger, P. J. (1992). Long-term psychological consequences of childhood frontal lobe lesion in patient D. T. Brain and Cognition, 20, 185–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, W. S. & Nagy, W. E. (1986). Theoretical issues in the investigation of the words of internal report. In From Models to Modules: Studies in Cognitive Science from the McGill Workshops, ed. Gopnik, A. and Gopnik, M.. Norwood, NJ: Ablex, pp. 26–65.Google Scholar
Hanten, G., Dennis, M., Zhang, L., Barnes, M. & Robertson, G. (2004). Childhood head injury and metacognitive processes in language and memory. Developmental Neuropsychology, 25, 85–106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanten, G., Levin, H. S. & Song, J. X. (1999). Working memory and metacognition in sentence comprehension by severely head-injured children: A preliminary study. Developmental Neuropsychology, 16, 393–414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Happaney, K. & Zelazo, P. D. (2003). Inhibition as a problem in the psychology of behavior. Developmental Science, 6, 468–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Happé, F., Malhi, G. S. & Checkley, S. (2001). Acquired mind-blindness following frontal lobe surgery? A single case study of impaired “theory of mind” in a patient treated with stereotactic anterior capsulotomy. Neuropsychologia, 39, 83–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harlow, J. M. (1868). Recovery after severe injury to the head. Publication of the Massachusetts Medical Society, 2, 327–46.Google Scholar
Harnishfeger, K. K. & Bjorklund, D. F. (1994). The ontogeny of inhibition mechanisms: A renewed approach to cognitive development. In Emerging Themes in Cognitive Development: Foundations, Vol. 1, ed. Howe, M. L. and Pasnak, R.. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, pp. 28–49.Google Scholar
Harnishfeger, K. K. & Pope, R. S. (1996). Intending to forget: The development of cognitive inhibition in directed forgetting. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 62, 292–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haverkate, H. (1990). A speech act analysis of irony. Journal of Pragmatics, 14, 77–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayes-Roth, B. & Hayes-Roth, F. (1979). A cognitive model of planning. Cognitive Science, 3, 275–310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hebb, D. O. (1942). The effect of early and late brain injury upon test scores, and the nature of normal adult intelligence. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 85, 275–92.Google Scholar
Houghton, G. & Tipper, S. P. (1994). A model of inhibitory mechanisms in selective attention. In Inhibition Processes in Attention, Memory, and Language, ed. Dagenbach, D. and Carr, T. H.. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, pp. 53–112.Google Scholar
Hughes, C. (2002). Executive functions and development: Why the interest?Infant and Child Development, 11, 69–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hulme, C. & Roodenrys, S. (1995). Practitioner review: Verbal working memory development and its disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36, 373–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huttenlocher, P. R. (1979). Synaptic density in human frontal cortex– developmental changes and effects of aging. Brain Research, 163, 195–205.Google ScholarPubMed
Ivry, R. & Keele, S. (1989). Timing functions of the cerebellum. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 1, 136–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Janusz, J. A., Kirkwood, M. W., Yeates, K. O. & Taylor, H. G. (2002). Social problem-solving skills in children with traumatic brain injury: Long-term outcomes and prediction of social competence. Child Neuropsychology, 8, 179–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karttunen, L. (1971). Implicative verbs. Language, 47, 340–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kates, W. R., Frederikse, M., Mostofsky, S. H., et al. (2002). MRI parcellation of the frontal lobe in boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder or Tourette syndrome. Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging, 116, 63–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kennard, M. A. (1938). Reorganization of motor function in the cerebral cortex of monkeys deprived of motor and premotor areas in infancy. Journal of Neurophysiology, 1, 477–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennard, M. (1940). Relation of age to motor impairment in man and in subhuman primates. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 44, 377–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennard, M. & Fulton, J. (1942). Age and reorganization of central nervous system. Mount Sinai Hospital Journal, 9, 594–606.Google Scholar
Kennard, M., Spencer, S. & Fountain, G. (1941). Hyperactivity in monkeys following lesions of the frontal lobes. Journal of Neurophysiology, 4, 512–24.Google Scholar
Kerr, A. & Zelazo, P. D. (2004). Development of “hot” executive function: The children's gambling task. Brain and Cognition, 55, 148–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, S., Ugurbil, K. & Strick, P. (1994). Activation of a cerebellar output nucleus during cognitive processing. Science, 265, 949–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kiparsky, P. & Kiparsky, C. (1970). Fact. In Progress in Linguistics, ed. Bierwisch, M. and Heidolph, K.. The Hague: Mouton, pp. 143–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirkham, N. & Diamond, A. (2003). Sorting between theories of perseveration: Performance in conflict tasks requires memory, attention, and inhibition. Developmental Science, 6, 474–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kochanska, G., Murray, K., Jacques, T. Y., Koenig, A. L. & Vandegeest, K. A. (1996). Inhibitory control in young children and its role in emerging internalization. Child Development, 67, 490–507.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kolb, B., Pellis, S. & Robinson, T. E. (2004). Plasticity and functions of the orbital frontal cortex. Brain and Cognition, 55, 104–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Konrad, K., Gauggel, S., Manz, A. & Scholl, M. (2000). Lack of inhibition: a motivational deficit in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and children with traumatic brain injury. Child Neuropsychology, 6, 286–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kreutzer, M. A., Leonard, C. & Flavell, J. H. (1975). Prospective remembering in children. In Memory Observed: Remembering in Natural Contexts, ed. Neisser, U.. San Francisco: Freeman, pp. 343–8.Google Scholar
Kvavilashvili, L. & Ellis, J. (1996). Varieties of intentions: Some distinctions and classifications. In Prospective Memory: Theory and Application, ed. Brandimonte, M. A., Einstein, G. O. and McDaniel, M. A.. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., pp. 23–51.Google Scholar
Kvavilashvili, L., Messer, D. L. & Ebdon, P. (2001). Prospective memory in children: The effects of age and task interruption. Developmental Psychology, 37, 418–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, Z. I., Byun, W. M., Jang, S. H., et al. (2003). Diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging of microstructural abnormalities in children with brain injury. American Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 82, 556–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levin, H. S., Benavidez, D., Verger-Maestre, K., et al. (2000). Reduction of corpus callosum growth after severe traumatic brain injury in children. Neurology, 54, 647–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levin, H. S., Culhane, K. A., Hartman, J., et al. (1991). Developmental changes in performance on tests of purported frontal lobe functioning. Developmental Neuropsychology, 7, 377–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levin, H. S., Culhane, K. A., Mendelsohn, D., et al. (1993). Cognition in relation to MRI in head injured children and adolescents. Archives of Neurology, 50, 897–905.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levin, H. S., Fletcher, J. M., Kusnerik, L., et al. (1996). Semantic memory following pediatric head injury: Relationship to age, severity of injury, and MRI. Cortex, 32, 461–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levin, H. S., Mendelsohn, D., Lilly, M., et al. (1994). Tower of London performance in relation to magnetic resonance imaging following closed head injury in children. Neuropsychology, 8, 171–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levin, H. S., Song, J., Ewing-Cobbs, L. & Robertson, G. (2001). Porteus maze performance following traumatic brain injury in children. Neuropsychology, 15, 557–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levin, H. S., Zhang, L., Dennis, M., et al. (2004). Psychosocial outcome of TBI in children with unilateral frontal lesions. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 10, 305–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levine, B. (2004). Autobiographical memory and the self in time: Brain lesion effects, functional neuroanatomy, and lifespan development. Brain and Cognition, 55, 54–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levisohn, L., Cronin-Golomb, A. & Schmahmann, J. D. (2000). Neuropsychological consequences of cerebellar tumour resection in children: cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome in a paediatric population. Brain, 123, 1041–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Livesey, D. J. & Morgan, G. A. (1991). The development of response inhibition in 4- and 5-year-old children. Australian Journal of Psychology, 43, 133–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lough, S., Gregory, C. & Hodges, J. R. (2001). Dissociation of social cognition and executive function in frontal variant frontotemporal dementia. Neurocase, 7, 123–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCauley, S. R. & Levin, H. S. (2000). Prospective memory deficits in children and adolescents sustaining severe closed-head injury. Presentation at the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Neuroscience Society, San Francisco, CA.Google Scholar
McCauley, S. R. & Levin, H. S. (2001). Prospective memory and executive function in children with severe traumatic brain injury. Presentation at the 3rd International Conference on Memory (ICOM-3), Valencia, Spain.Google Scholar
McCauley, S. R. & Levin, H. S. (2004). Prospective memory in pediatric traumatic brain injury: A preliminary study. Developmental Neuropsychology, 25, 5–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Macmillan, M. (2000). An Odd Kind of Fame: Stories about Phineas Gage. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Manly, T., Robertson, I. H., Anderson, V. & Nimmo-Smith, I. (1999). Test of Everyday Attention for Children. Bury St. Edmunds: Thames Valley.Google Scholar
Marlowe, W. B. (1992). The impact of a right prefrontal lesion on the developing brain. Brain and Cognition, 20, 205–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matsuzawa, J., Matsui, M., Konishi, T., et al. (2001). Age-related volumetric changes of brain gray and white matter in healthy infants and children. Cerebral Cortex, 11, 335–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Max, J. E., Levin, H. S., Landis, J., et al. (2005). Predictors of personality change due to traumatic brain injury in children and adolescents in the first six months after injury. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 435–42.Google ScholarPubMed
Max, J. E., Levin, H. S., Schachar, R., et al. (2006). Predictors of personality change due to traumatic brain injury in children and adolescents 6 to 24 months after injury. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 18, 21–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mazzoni, G. & Nelson, T. O. (Eds.). (1998). Metacognition and Cognitive Neuropsychology: Monitoring and Control Processes. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.Google Scholar
Mendelsohn, D., Levin, H. S., Bruce, D., et al. (1992). Late MRI after head injury in children: Relationship to clinical features and outcome. Child's Nervous System, 8, 445–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Middleton, F. & Strick, P. (2001). Cerebellar projections to the prefrontal cortex of the primate. Journal of Neuroscience, 21, 700–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, E. K. (2000). The prefrontal cortex and cognitive control. Nature Reviews: Neuroscience, 1, 59–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, E. K. & Cohen, J. D. (2001). An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24, 167–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mize, J. & Ladd, G. W. (1988). Predicting preschoolers' peer behaviour and status from their interpersonal strategies: A comparison of verbal and enactive responses to hypothetical social dilemmas. Developmental Psychology, 24, 782–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montgomery, J. W. (1995). Sentence comprehension in children with specific language impairment: The role of phonological working memory. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 33, 187–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moses, L. J. (2001). Executive accounts of theory of mind development. Child Development, 72, 688–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oberauer, K. & Suess, H. M. (2001). Individual and developmental differences in working memory across the life span: Comment. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 7, 727–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Donnell, S., Noseworthy, M., Levine, B., Brandt, M. & Dennis, M. (2005). Cortical thickness of the frontopolar area in typically developing children and adolescents. Neuroimage, 24, 948–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pascual-Leone, J. (2001). If the magical number is 4, how does one account for operations within working memory?Brain and Behavioral Sciences, 24, 136–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Passolunghi, M. C., Brandimonte, M. A. & Cornoldi, C. (1995). Encoding modality and prospective memory in children. International Journal of Behavioural Development, 18, 631–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paus, T. (2005). Mapping brain maturation and cognitive development during adolescence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 60–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perner, J., Lang, B. & Kloo, D. (2002). Theory of mind and self-control: More than a common problem of inhibition. Child Development, 73, 752–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petrides, M., Alivisatos, B., Meyer, E. & Evans, A. C. (1993). Functional activation of the human frontal cortex during the performance of verbal working memory tasks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 90, 878–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petrides, M. & Pandya, D. N. (2002). Association pathways of the prefrontal cortex and functional observations. In Principles of Frontal Lobe Function, ed. Stuss, D. T. and Knight, R. T.. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 31–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pfefferbaum, A., Mathalon, D. H., Sullivan, E. V., et al. (1994). A quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study of changes in brain morphology from infancy to late adulthood. Archives of Neurology, 51, 874–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porteus, S. D. (1959). Porteus Maze Test: Fifty Years' Application. Palo Alto, CA: Pacific Books.Google Scholar
Purvis, K. & Schachar, R. (2001). Inhibitory deficit and ADHD following closed head injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 7, 165.Google Scholar
Rabinowicz, T. (1986). The differentiate maturation of the human cerebral cortex. In Human Growth, Vol. 3, ed. Falkner, F. and Tanner, J. M.. New York, NY: Plenum Publishing Corporation, pp. 97–123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ratterman, M., Spector, L, Grafman, J., Levin, H. & Harwood, H. (2001). Partial and total-order planning: evidence from normal and prefrontally damaged populations. Cognitive Science, 25, 941–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reiman, E., Raichle, M., Robins, E., et al. (1989). Neuroanatomical correlates of a lactate-induced anxiety attack. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 493–500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reiss, A. L., Abrams, M. T., Singer, H. S., Ross, J. L. & Denckla, M. B. (1996). Brain development, gender and IQ in children. Brain, 119, 1763–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richards, J. E. (2003). The development of visual attention and the brain. In The Cognitive Neuroscience of Development, ed. Haan, M. and Johnson, M. H.. Hove, UK: Psychology Press, pp. 73–98.Google Scholar
Riva, D. & Giorgi, C. (2000). The cerebellum contributes to higher functions during development. Evidence from a series of children surgically treated for posterior fossa tumours. Brain, 123, 1051–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, W. A. (2002). Are animals stuck in time?Psychological Review, 128, 473–89.Google ScholarPubMed
Rogoff, B., Newcombe, N. E. & Kagan, J. (1974). The development of knowledge concerning the effect of categorization upon free recall. Child Development, 44, 238–46.Google Scholar
Roncadin, C., Guger, S., Archibald, J., Barnes, M. & Dennis, M. (2004). Working memory after mild, moderate, or severe childhood head injury. Developmental Neuropsychology, 25, 21–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roncadin, C., Rich, J. B., Pascual-Leone, J. & Dennis, M. (2003). Working memory and inhibitory control after early childhood closed head injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 9, 141.Google Scholar
Rudolph, K. & Heller, T. (1997). Interpersonal problem solving, externalizing behavior, and social competence in preschoolers: A knowledge-performance discrepancy?Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 18, 107–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rypma, B. & D'Esposito, M. (2000). Isolating the neural mechanisms of age-related changes in human working memory. Nature Neuroscience, 3, 509–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saarni, C. (1999). The Development of Emotional Competence.London, UK: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Sadeh, M. & Cohen, I. (2001). Transient loss of speech after removal of posterior fossa tumors – one aspect of a larger neuropsychological entity: the cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome. Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, 18, 423–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schachar, R., Levin, H. S., Max, J. E., Purvis, K. & Chen, S. (2004). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms and response inhibition after closed head injury in children: Do preinjury behavior and injury severity predict outcome?Developmental Neuropsychology, 25, 179–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scheibel, R. S. & Levin, H. S. (1997). Frontal lobe dysfunction following closed head injury in children: Findings from neuropsychology and brain imaging. In Development of the Prefrontal Cortex: Evolution, Neurobiology, and Behavior, ed. Krasnegor, N. A., Lyon, G. R. and Goldman-Rakic, P. S.. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes, pp. 241–60.Google Scholar
Schmahmann, J. & Pandya, D. (1995). Prefrontal cortex projections to the basilar pons in rhesus monkey: implications for the cerebellar contributions to higher function. Neuroscience Letters, 199, 175–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmahmann, J. & Pandya, D. (1997). Anatomic organization of the basilar pontine projections from prefrontal cortices in rhesus monkey. Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 438–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmahmann, J. D. & Sherman, J. C. (1998). The cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome. Brain, 121, 561–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schneider, W. (1998). The development of procedural metamemory in childhood and adolescence. In Metacognition and Cognitive Neuropsychology: Monitoring and Control Processes, ed. Mazzoni, G. and Nelson, T. O.. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., pp. 1–21.Google Scholar
Segalowitz, S. J. & Davies, P. L. (2004). Charting the maturation of the frontal lobe: An electrophysiological strategy. Brain and Cognition, 55, 116–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Séguin, J. R. (2004). Neurocognitive elements of social antisocial behaviour: Relevance of an orbitofrontal cortex account. Brain and Cognition, 55, 185–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shammi, P. & Stuss, D. T. (1999). Humor appreciation. A role for the right frontal lobe. Brain, 122, 657–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shimamura, A. P. & Squire, L. R. (1986). Memory and metamemory: A study of feeling of knowing phenomenon in amnesic patients. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory Cognition, 12, 452–60.Google ScholarPubMed
Shum, D. (2005). Prospective memory following traumatic brain injury in children and adolescents. Presentation at the Joint Mid-Year Meeting of the International Neuropsychology Society, Dublin, Ireland.Google Scholar
Silveri, M., Leggio, M. & Molinari, M. (1994). The cerebellum contributes to linguistic production: A case of agrammatic speech following a right cerebellar lesion. Neurology, 44, 2047–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sommerville, S. C., Wellman, H. M. & Cultice, J. C. (1983). Young children's deliberate reminding. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 143, 87–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sowell, E. R., Delis, D., Stiles, J. & Jernigan, T. L. (2001). Improved memory functioning and frontal lobe maturation between childhood and adolescence: a structural MRI study. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 7, 312–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sowell, E. R. & Jernigan, T. L. (1998). Further MRI evidence of late brain maturation: Limbic volume increases and changing asymmetries during childhood and adolescence. Developmental Neuropsychology, 14, 599–617.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sowell, E. R., Thompson, P. M., Holmes, C. J., et al. (1999). Localizing age-related changes in brain structure between childhood and adolescence using statistical parametric mapping. NeuroImage, 9, 587–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sowell, E. R., Trauner, D. A., Gamst, A. & Jernigan, T. L. (2002). Development of cortical and subcortical brain structures in childhood and adolescence: A structural MRI study. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 44, 4–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steinberg, L. (2005). Cognitive and affective development in adolescence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 69–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stuss, D. T. & Anderson, V. (2004). The frontal lobes and theory of mind: Developmental concepts from adult focal lesion research. Brain and Cognition, 55, 69–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stuss, D. T., Gallup, G. G. & Alexander, M. P. (2001). The frontal lobes are necessary for ‘theory of mind’. Brain, 124, 279–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thatcher, R. W. (1997). Human frontal lobe development: A theory of cyclical cortical reorganization. In Development of the Prefrontal Cortex: Evolution, Neurobiology, and Behavior, ed. Krasnegor, N. A., Lyon, G. R. and Goldman-Rakic, P. S.. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes, pp. 85–113.Google Scholar
Tranel, D. (2002). Emotion, decision making, and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. In Principles of Frontal Lobe Function, ed. Stuss, D. T. and Knight, R. T.. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 338–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tulving, E. (2002). Chronesthesia: Conscious awareness of subjective time. In Principles of Frontal Lobe Function, ed. Stuss, D. T. and Knight, R. T.. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 311–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turkstra, L., McDonald, S. & DePompei, R. (2001). Social information processing in adolescents: Data from normally developing adolescents and preliminary data from their peers with traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 16, 469–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warschausky, S., Cohen, E. H., Parker, J. G., Levendosky, A. A. & Okun, A. (1997). Social problem-solving skills of children with traumatic brain injury. Pediatric Rehabilitation, 1, 77–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wichman, H. & Oyasato, A. (1983). Effects of locus of control and task complexity on prospective remembering. Human Factors, 25, 583–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilde, E. A., Hunter, J. V., Newsom, M. R., et al. (2005). Frontal and temporal morphometric findings on MRI in children after moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 22, 333–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, B. R., Ponesse, J. S., Schachar, R. J., Logan, G. D. & Tannock, R. (1999). Development of inhibitory control across the life span. Developmental Psychology, 35, 205–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Winner, E. (1988). The Point of Words: Children's Understanding of Metaphor and Irony. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wood, J. & Grafman, J. (2003). Human prefrontal cortex: Processing and representational perspectives. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4, 139–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yakovlev, P. I. & Lecours, A. R. (1967). The myelogenetic cycles of regional maturation of the brain. In Regional Development of the Brain in Early Life, ed. Minkowski, A.. Oxford, England: Blackwell, pp. 3–70.Google Scholar
Yeates, K. O., Schultz, L. H. & Selman, R. L. (1990). Bridging the gaps in child-clinical assessment: Toward the application of social-cognitive development theory. Clinical Psychology Review, 10, 567–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yeates, K. O., Swift, E., Taylor, H. G., et al. (2004). Short and long-term social outcomes following pediatric traumatic brain injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 10, 412–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×