On 20 April 1817, Usman dan Fodio died after a long illness. According to the popular version recounted by Murray Last and others, Abdullahi set off to Sokoto to pay his respects, and expected to discuss the appointment of a new leader. But when he arrived, he found the city gates locked and was told that Muhammad Bello had been appointed Usman’s successor.While many different versions of this event exist, including Bello’s own telling to Ahmad Lobbo, discussed below, what is clear is that Bello had quickly become Amīr al-muʾminīn in mysterious circumstances.

The immediate challenge to Bello’s rule came from Abdullahi, who wrote a document contesting the succession. But more broadly, the period 1817–1821 was a difficult time both for Muhammad Bello and the legitimacy of the Sokoto project. Bello continued Usman’s work to dismantle the discourse of dissent and framed his rise to power pragmatically as the ‘lesser of two evils’. However, copies of those early texts circulated across the Sahel where various actors employed their own ‘discourses of dissent’ to delegitimise his new regime. This chapter gives a summary of the threats facing Muhammad Bello and how he dealt with them through both military action and discursive argument.

Defending the Succession (1817)

While Usman was alive, the Fodiawa had repeatedly emphasised the need for a Muslim ruler to lead the community – the Amīr al-muʾminīn – and discussed at length the qualities he should possess. Before the jihad, they had contrasted this promised ruler to the corruption of the Hausa sarakai. Afterwards, Usman and Abdullahi argued over the precise authority held by the ruler and the terms by which he should be addressed. However, Usman had seemingly failed to name a successor before his death and left little clarity as to how the community should appoint their next leader.

Three weeks after Usman died, Abdullahi wrote Sabīl al-salāma, a text challenging the legal basis of the succession. Bello, now addressing himself as Amīr al-muʾminīn, wrote his response, al-Inṣāf, some nine and a half weeks later.