Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-94fs2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-09T05:37:22.193Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 35 - Acidosis and Alkalosis

from Section 4 - Specific Conditions Associated with Fetal and Neonatal Brain Injury

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 December 2017

By
Ronald S. Cohen
Edited by
David K. Stevenson ,
William E. Benitz ,
Philip Sunshine ,
Susan R. Hintz  and
Maurice L. Druzin
David K. Stevenson
Affiliation:
Stanford University, California
William E. Benitz
Affiliation:
Stanford University, California
Philip Sunshine
Affiliation:
Stanford University, California
Susan R. Hintz
Affiliation:
Stanford University, California
Maurice L. Druzin
Affiliation:
Stanford University, California
Get access

Summary

A summary is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Fetal and Neonatal Brain Injury , pp. 557 - 565
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2017

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Hickling, KG, Henderson, SJ, Jackson, R. Low mortality associated with low volume pressure limited ventilation with permissive hypercapnia in severe adult respiratory distress syndrome. Intensive Care Med 1990; 16: 372–7.Google Scholar
Mariani, G, Cifuentes, J, Carlo, WA. Randomized trial of permissive hypercapnia in preterm infants. Pediatrics 1999; 104: 1082–8.Google Scholar
Ni Chonghaile, M, Higgins, B, Laffey, JG. Permissive hypercapnia: role in protective lung ventilatory strategies. Curr Opin Crit Care 2005; 11: 56–62.Google Scholar
Carlo, WA. Permissive hypercapnia and permissive hypoxemia in neonates. J Perinatol 2007; 27:S64–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thome, UH, Ambalavanan, A. Permissive hypercapnia to decrease lung injury in ventilated preterm neonates. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2009; 14: 21–7.Google Scholar
Hernandez, MJ, Brennan, RW, Vannucci, RC, et al. Cerebral blood flow and oxygen consumption in the newborn dog. Am J Physiol 1978; 234: R209–15.Google Scholar
Reivich, M, Brann, AW, Shapiro, H. Reactivity of cerebral vessels to CO2 in the newborn rhesus monkey. Eur Neurol 1971; 6: 132–6.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, AA, Jones, MD, Traystman, RJ, et al. Response of cerebral blood flow to changes in pCO2 in fetal, newborn, and adult sheep. Am J Physiol 1982; 242: H862–6.Google Scholar
Griesen, G. Cerebral blood flow and energy metabolism in the newborn. Clin Perinatol 1997; 24: 531–46.Google Scholar
Dietz, V, Wolf, M, Keel, M, et al. CO2 reactivity of the cerebral hemoglobin concentration in healthy term newborns measured by near infrared spectrophotometry. Biol Neonate 1999; 75: 85–90.Google Scholar
Jayasinghe, D, Gill, AB, Levene, MI. CBF reactivity in hypotensive and normotensive preterm infants. Pediatr Res 2003; 54: 848–53.Google Scholar
Kaiser, JR, Gauss, CH, Williams, DK. The effects of hypercapnia on cerebral autoregulation in ventilated very low birth weight infants. Pediatr Res 2005; 58: 931–5.Google Scholar
Kenny, JD, Garcia-Prats, JA, Hilliard, JL, et al. Hypercarbia at birth:a possible role in the pathogenesis of intraventricular hemorrhage. Pediatrics 1978; 62: 465–7.Google Scholar
Levene, MI, Fawer, CL, Lamont, RF. Risk factors in the development of intraventricular haemorrhage in the preterm neonate. Arch Dis Child 1982; 57: 410–17.Google Scholar
Kaiser, JR, Gauss, CH, Pont, MJ, et al. Hypercapnia during the first 3 days of life is associated with severe intraventricular hemorrhage in very low birth weight infants. J Perinatol 2006; 26: 279–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaiser, JR, Gauss, CH, Williams, DK. Surfactant administration acutely affects cerebral and systemic hemodynamics and gas exchange in very low birth weight infants. J Pediatr 2004; 144: 809–14.Google ScholarPubMed
Lightbum, MH, Gauss, CH, Williams, DK, Kaiser, JR. Observational study of cerebral hemodynamics during dopamine treatment in hypotensive ELBW infants on the first day of life. J Perinatol 2013; 33: 698–702.Google Scholar
Zayek, MM, Alrifai, W, Whitehurst, RM Jr, et al. Acidemia versus hypercapnia and risk for severe intraventricular hemorrhage. Am J Perinatol 2014; 31: 345–52.Google Scholar
Gleason, CA, Short, BL, Jones, MD Jr. Cerebral blood flow and metabolism during and after prolonged hypocapnia in newborn lambs. J Pediatr 1989; 115: 309–14.Google Scholar
Fabres, J, Carlo, WA, Phillips, V, et al. Both extremes of arterial carbon dioxide pressure and the magnitude of fluctuations in arterial carbon dioxide pressure are associated with severe intraventricular hemorrhage in preterm infants. J Pediatr 2007; 119: 299–305.Google Scholar
Noori, S, Anderson, M, Soleymani, S, Seri, I. Effect of carbon dioxide on cerebral blood flow velocity in preterm infants during postnatal transition. Acta Paediatr 2014; 103:e344–9.Google Scholar
Vannucci, RC, Towfighi, J, Heitjan, DF, et al. Carbon dioxide protects the perinatal rat brain from hypoxic–ischemic damage. Pediatrics 1995; 95: 868–74.Google Scholar
Vannucci, RC, Towfighi, J, Brucklacher, RM, et al. Effect of extreme hypercapnia on hypoxic–ischemic brain damage in the immature rat. Pediatr Res 2001; 49: 799–803.Google Scholar
Komori, M, Takada, K, Tomizawa, Y, et al. Permissive range of hypercapnia for improved peripheral microcirculation and cardiac output in rabbits. Crit Care Med 2007; 35: 2171–5.Google Scholar
Xu, L, Glassford, AJM, Giaccia, AJ, et al. Acidosis reduces neuronal apoptosis. NeuroReport 1998; 9: 875–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laffey, JG, Tanaka, M, Engelberts, D, et al. Therapeutic hypercapnia reduces pulmonary and systemic injury following in vivo lung reperfusion. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162: 2287–94.Google Scholar
Laffey, JG, Engelberts, D, Kavanagh, BP. Buffering hypercapnic acidosis worsens acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 161: 141–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fujita, M, Asanuma, H, Hirata, A, et al. Prolonged transient acidosis during early reperfusion contributes to the cardioprotective effects of postconditioning. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2007; 292: H2004–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carlo, WA, Stark, AR, Wright, LL, et al. Minimal ventilation to prevent bronchopulmonary dysplasia in extremely low-birth-weight infants. J Pediatr 2002; 141: 370–5.Google Scholar
Thome, UH, Carroll, W, Wu, T-J, et al. Outcome of extremely preterm infants randomized at birth to different PaCO2 targets during the first seven days of life. Biol Neonate 2006; 90: 218–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, JD, Carlo, WA. Safety and effectiveness of permissive hypercapnia in the preterm infant. Curr Opin Pediatr 2007; 19: 142–4.Google Scholar
Ou, X, Glasier, CM, Ramakrishnaiah, RH, et al. Diffusion tensor imaging in extremely low birth weight infants managed with hypercapnic vs. normocapnic ventilation. Pediatr Radiol 2014; 44: 980–6.Google Scholar
van Kaam, AH, De Jaegere, AP, Rimensberger, PC, et al. Incidence of hypo- and hypercapnia in a cross-sectional European cohort of ventilated newborn infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2013; 98:F323–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Committee on Obstetric Practice. Umbilical cord blood gas and acid-base analysis. Obstet Gynecol 2006; 108: 1319–22.Google Scholar
Evans, OB. Lactic acidosis in childhood, part I. Pediatr Neurol 1985; 1: 325–8.Google Scholar
Bar, A, Riskin, A, Iancu, T, et al. A newborn infant with protracted diarrhea and metabolic acidosis. J Pediatr 2007; 150: 198–201.Google Scholar
Debray, FG, Lamber, M, Chevalier, I, et al. Long-term outcome and clinical spectrum of 73 pediatric patients with mitochondrial diseases. Pediatrics 2007; 119: 722–33.Google Scholar
Bhati, RS, Sheridan, BC, Mill, MR, et al. Heart transplantation for progressive cardiomyopathy as a manifestation of MELAS syndrome. J Heart Lung Transplant 2005; 24: 2286–9.Google Scholar
Schurr, A. Lactate: the ultimate cerebral oxidative energy substrate? J Cerebral Blood Flow Metabol 2006; 26: 142–52.Google Scholar
Bergersen, LH. Is lactate food for neurons? Comparison of monocarboxylate transporter subtypes in brain and muscle. Neuroscience 2007; 145:11–19.Google Scholar
Boumezbeur, F, Petersen, KF, Cline, GW, et al. The contribution of blood lactate to brain energy metabolism in humans measured by dynamic 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Neurosci 2010; 30: 13983–191.Google Scholar
Overgaard, M, Rasmussen, P, Bohm, AM, et al. Hypoxia and exercise provoke both lactate release and lactate oxidation by the human brain. FASEB J 2012; 26: 3012–20.Google Scholar
Pirchl, M, Marksteiner, J, Humpel, C. Effects of acidosis on brain capillary endothelial cells and cholinergic neurons: relevance to vascular dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Neurol Res 2006; 28: 657–64.Google Scholar
Gilbert, E, Tang, JM, Ludvig, N, et al. Elevated lactate suppresses neuronal firing in vivo and inhibits glucose metabolism in hippocampal slice cultures. Brain Res 2006; 1117: 213–23.Google Scholar
Ammari, AN, Schulze, KF. Uses and abuses of sodium bicarbonate in the neonatal intensive care unit. Curr Opin Pediatr 2002; 14: 151–6.Google Scholar
Murki, S, Kumar, P, Lingappa, L, et al. Effect of a single dose of sodium bicarbonate given during neonatal resuscitation at birth on the acid-base status on first day of life. J Perinatol 2004; 24: 696–9.Google Scholar
Lokesh, L, Kumar, P, Murki, S, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of sodium bicarbonate in neonatal resuscitation: effect on immediate outcome. Resuscitation 2000; 60: 219–23.Google Scholar
Beveridge, CJE, Wilkinson, AR. Sodium bicarbonate infusion during resuscitation of infants at birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006; 1:CD004864.Google Scholar
Mintzer, JP, Parvez, B, Alpan G, LaGamma, EF. Effects of sodium bicarbonate correction of metabolic acidosis on regional tissue oxygenation in very low birth weight neonates. J Perinatol 2015; 35(8): 601–6.Google Scholar
Laffey, JG, Kavanagh, BP. Hypocapnia. N Engl J Med 2002; 347:43–53.Google Scholar
Cassin, S, Dawes, GS, Mott, JC, et al. The vascular resistance of the foetal and newly ventilated lung of the lamb. J Physiol 1964; 171:61–79.Google Scholar
Rudolph, AM, Yuan, S. Response of the pulmonary vasculature to hypoxia and Hþ ion concentration changes. J Clin Invest 1966; 45:399–411.Google Scholar
Peckham, GJ, Fox, WW. Physiologic factors affecting pulmonary artery pressure in infants with persistent pulmonary hypertension. J Pediatr 1978; 93: 1005–10.Google Scholar
Fox, WW, Duara, S. Persistent pulmonary hypertension in the neonate: diagnosis and management. J Pediatr 1983; 103: 505–14.Google Scholar
Marron, MJ, Crisafi, MA, Driscoll, JM, et al. Hearing and neurodevelopmental outcome in survivors of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. Pediatrics 1992; 90: 392–6.Google Scholar
Brett, C, Dekle, M, Leonard, CH, et al. Developmental follow-up of hyperventilated neonates: preliminary observations. Pediatrics 1981; 68: 588–91.Google Scholar
Ferrara, B, Johnson, DE, Chang, PN, et al. Efficacy and neurologic outcome of profound hypocapneic alkalosis for the treatment of persistent pulmonary hypertension in infancy. J Pediatr 1984; 105: 457–61.Google Scholar
Bernbaum, JC, Russell, P, Sheridan, PH, et al. Long-term follow-up of newborns with persistent pulmonary hypertension. Crit Care Med 1984; 12: 579–83.Google Scholar
Ballard, RA, Leonard, CH. Developmental follow-up of infants with persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. Clin Perinatol 1984; 11: 737–44.Google Scholar
Leavitt, AM, Watchko, JF, Bennett, FC, et al. Neurodevelopmental outcome following persistent pulmonary hypertension of the neonate. J Perinatol 1987; 7: 288–91.Google Scholar
Bifano, EM, Pfannenstsiel, A. Duration of hyperventilation and outcome in infants with persistent pulmonary hypertension. Pediatrics 1988; 81: 657–61.Google Scholar
Cohen, RS, Stevenson, D, Malachowski, N, et al. Late morbidity among survivors on respiratory failure treated with tolazoline. J Pediatr 1980; 97: 644–7.Google Scholar
Graziani, LJ, Baumgart, S, Desai, S, et al. Clinical antecedents of neurologic and audiologic abnormalities in survivors of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. J Child Neurol 1997; 12: 415–22.Google Scholar
Lyrene, Rk, Welch, KA, Godoy, G, et al. Alkalosis attenuates hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction in neonatal lambs. Pediatr Res 1985; 19: 1268–71.Google Scholar
Schreiber, MD, Heymann, MA, Soifer, SJ. Increased arterial pH, not decreased PaCO2, attenuates hypoxia-induced pulmonary vasoconstriction in newborn lambs. Pediatr Res 1986; 20: 113–17.Google Scholar
Chang, AC, Zucker, HA, Hickey, PR, et al. Pulmonary vascular resistance in infants after cardiac surgery: role of carbon dioxide and hydrogen ion. Crit Care Med 1995; 23: 568–74.Google Scholar
Lee, KJ, Hernandez, G, Gordon, JB. Hypercapnic acidosis and compensated hypercapnia in control and pulmonary hypertensive piglets. Pediatr Pulmonol 2003; 36:94–101.Google Scholar
Walsh-Sukys, MC, Tyson, JE, Wright, LL, et al. Persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn in the era before nitric oxide: practice variation and outcomes. Pediatrics 2000; 105:14–20.Google Scholar
Hansen, NB, Nowicki, PT, Miller, RR, et al. Alterations in cerebral blood flow and oxygen consumption during prolonged hypocarbia. Pediatr Res 1986; 20: 147–50.Google Scholar
Kusada, S, Shisida, N, Miyagi, N, et al. Cerebral blood flow during treatment for pulmonary hypertension. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 1999; 80:F30–3.Google Scholar
Menke, J, Michel, E, Rabe, H, et al. Simultaneous influence of blood pressure, PCO2, and PO2 on cerebral blood flow velocity in preterm infants of less than 33 weeks’ gestation. Pediatr Res 1993; 24: 173–7.Google Scholar
Kaiser, JR, Gauss, CH, Williams, DK. The effects of hypercapnia on cerebral autoregulation in ventilated very low birth weight infants. Pediatr Res 2005; 58: 931–5.Google Scholar
Soul, JS, Hammer, PE, Tsuji, P, et al. Fluctuating pressure-passivity is common in the cerebral circulation of sick premature infants. Pediatr Res 2007; 61: 467–73.Google Scholar
Kennedy, C, Sakurada, O, Shinohara, M, et al. Local cerebral glucose utilization in the newborn macaque monkey. Ann Neurol 1982; 12: 333–40.Google Scholar
Vannucci, RC, Vannucci, SJ. Perinatal brain metabolism. In Polin, RA, Fox, WW, Abman, SH, eds., Fetal and Neonatal Physiology, 3rd edn. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2004: 1713–25.Google Scholar
Graham, EM, Apostolou, M, Mishra, OP, et al. Modification of the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor in the brain of newborn piglets following hyperventilation induced ischemia. Neurosci Lett 1996; 218:29–32.Google Scholar
Fritz, KI, Zubrow, AB, Ashraf, QM, et al. The effect of moderate hypocapnic ventilation on nuclear Ca2+-ATPase activity, nuclear Ca2+ flux, and Ca2+/calmodulin kinase IV activity in the cerebral cortex of newborn piglets. Neurochem Res 2004; 29: 791–6.Google Scholar
Naulty, CM, Weiss, IP, Herer, GR. Progressive sensorineural hearing loss in survivors of persistent fetal circulation. Ear Hear 1986; 7: 74–7.Google Scholar
Hendricks-Munoz, KD, Walton, JP. Hearing loss in infants with persistent fetal circulation. Pediatrics 1988; 81: 650–6.Google Scholar
Calvert, SA, Hoskins, EM, Fong, KW, et al. Etiological factors associated with the development of periventricular leukomalacia. Acta Paediatr Scand 1987; 76: 254–9.Google Scholar
Graziani, LJ, Spitzer, AR, Mitchell, DG, et al. Mechanical ventilation in preterm infants: neurosonographic and developmental studies. Pediatrics 1992; 90: 515–22.Google Scholar
Wiswell, TE, Graziani, LJ, Kornhauser, MS, et al. Effects of hypocarbia on the development of cystic periventricular leukomalacia in premature infants treated with high-frequency jet ventilation. Pediatrics 1996; 98: 918–24.Google Scholar
Shankaran, S, Langer, JC, Kazzi, SN, et al. Cumulative index of exposure to hypocarbia and hyperoxia as risk factors for periventricular leukomalacia in low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 2006; 118: 1654–9.Google Scholar
HiFO Study Group. Randomized study of high-frequency oscillatory ventilation in infants with severe respiratory distress syndrome. J Pediatr 1993; 122: 609–19.Google Scholar
Wiswell, TE, Graziani, LJ, Kornhauser, MS, et al. High-frequency jet ventilation in the early management of respiratory distress syndrome is associated with a greater risk for adverse outcomes. Pediatrics 1996; 98: 1035–43.Google Scholar
Keszler, M, Modanlou, HD, Brudno, DS, et al. Multicenter controlled clinical trial of high-frequency jet ventilation in preterm infants with uncomplicated respiratory distress syndrome. Pediatrics 1997; 100: 593–9.Google Scholar
Klinger, G, Beyene, J, Shah, P, et al. Do hyperoxaemia and hypocapnia add to the risk of brain injury after intrapartum asphyxia? Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2005; 90:F49–52.Google Scholar
Vento, M, Asensi, M, Sastre, J, et al. Oxidative stress in asphyxiated term infants resuscitated with 100% oxygen. J Pediatr 2003; 142: 240–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Curley, G, Kavanagh, BP, Laffey, JG. Hypocapnia and the injured brain: more harm than benefit. Crit Care Med 2010; 38: 1348–59.Google Scholar
Laski, ME, Sabatini, S. Metabolic alkalosis, bedside and bench. Semin Nephrol 2006; 26: 404–21.Google Scholar
Shaer, AJ. Inherited primary renal tubular hypokalemic alkalosis: a review of Gitelman and Bartter syndromes. Am J Med Sci 2001; 322: 316–32.Google Scholar
Naesens, M, Steels, P, Verberckmoes, R, et al. Bartter’s and Gitelman’s syndromes: from gene to clinic. Nephron Physiol 2004; 96:65–78.Google Scholar
Kagalwalla, AF. Congenital chloride diarrhea:a study in Arab children. J Clin Gastroenterol 1994; 19:36–40.Google Scholar
Hihnala, S, Höglund, P, Lammi, L, et al. Long-term clinical outcome in patients with congenital chloride diarrhea. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2006; 42: 369–75.Google Scholar
Sasse, S, Kribs, A, Vierzig, A, et al. A staged protocol for the treatment of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. Klin Padiatr 1997; 209: 301–7.Google Scholar
Adeva-Andany, MM, Fernandez-Fernandez, C, Mourino-Bayolo, D, et al. Sodium bicarbonate therapy in patients with metabolic acidosis. Sci World J 2014; available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/627673.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×