Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rdxmf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T11:24:18.112Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

9 - “Who Do They Think We Are?!”

How Status Indignity and Exclusion Can Motivate Radicalization

from Part II - Drivers of the Exclusion–Extremism Link

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 May 2024

By
J. N. Rasmus Möring  and
Felicia Pratto
Edited by
Michaela Pfundmair ,
Andrew H. Hales  and
Kipling D. Williams
Michaela Pfundmair
Affiliation:
Federal University of Administrative Sciences, Germany
Andrew H. Hales
Affiliation:
University of Mississippi
Kipling D. Williams
Affiliation:
Purdue University, Indiana
Get access

Summary

Societies have constant competition between progressive forces that would reduce group-based inequality and regressive forces that would maintain it. As groups vie for superiority or equality, people on all sides can feel that their group is not being accorded as much status as it deserves, the feeling of status indignity. Further, political contests can lead people on all sides to feel excluded. We show that status indignity and exclusion are connected and can lead to radicalization. In reviewing research on social dominance orientation, right-wing authoritarianism, and collective narcissism, we identify evidence that regressive radicalization is more likely than progressive radicalization due to the psychological assumptions of people who favor regressive versus progressive movements.

Keywords

status indignityexclusionradicalizationhierarchy-attenuatinghierarchy-enhancingstatussocial dominance theoryprogressive movementregressive movement
Type
Chapter
Information
Exclusion and Extremism
A Psychological Perspective
 , pp. 184 - 211
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2024

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

ACLU (2023, July 21). Mapping attacks on LGBTQ rights in U.S. state legislatures. American Civil Liberties Union. www.aclu.org/legislative-attacks-on-lgbtq-rightsGoogle Scholar
Aichholzer, J., & Zandonella, M. (2016). Psychological bases of support for radical right parties. Personality and Individual Differences, 96, 185–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.02.072CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alcantara, R., Shortway, K. M., & Prempeh, B. A. (2019). The relationship between social dominance orientation and child sexual abuse credibility assessment. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 28(4), 400–416. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2019.1592271CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Altemeyer, B. (1988). Enemies of freedom: Understanding right-wing authoritarianism. Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Amnesty International (2022, July 22). Poland: Authorities must stop hateful rhetoric against LGBTI people and act to protect them from violence and discrimination. www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/07/poland-authorities-must-stop-hateful-rhetoric-against-lgbti-people-and-act-to-protect-them-from-violence-and-discrimination/Google Scholar
Amnesty International (2023, March 20). Conviction of Polish abortion activist “chilling.” www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/03/poland-conviction-of-activist-prosecuted-for-aiding-an-abortion-offers-chilling-snapshot-of-future/Google Scholar
Aptheker, H. (1943). American Negro slave revolts. Columbia University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Assche, van, J., Dhont, K., & Pettigrew, T. F. (2019). The social-psychological bases of far-right support in Europe and the United States. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 29, 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2407Google Scholar
Bartusevičius, H., van Leeuwen, F., & Petersen, M. B. (2020). Dominance-driven autocratic political orientations predict political violence in Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD) and non-WEIRD samples. Psychological Science, 31(12), 1511–1530. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620922476CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bélanger, J. J., Moyano, M., Muhammad, H., et al. (2019). Radicalization leading to violence: A test of the 3 N model. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00042CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berman, S. (2021). The causes of populism in the West. Annual Review of Political Science, 24(1), 71–88. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-102503CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berntzen, L. E., & Sandberg, S. (2014). The collective nature of lone wolf terrorism: Anders Behring Breivik and the anti-Islamic social movement. Terrorism and Political Violence, 26(5), 759–779. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2013.767245CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Besta, T., Szulc, M., & Jaśkiewicz, M. (2015). Political extremism, group membership and personality traits: Who accepts violence? / Extremismo político, pertenencia al grupo y rasgos de personalidad: ¿Quién acepta la violencia? Revista de Psicologia Social, 30(3), 563–585. https://doi.org/10.1080/02134748.2015.1065085CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blumer, H. (1958). Race prejudice as a sense of group position. The Pacific Sociological Review, 1(1), 3–7. https://doi.org/10.2307/1388607CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bondü, R., Schwemmer, F., & Pfetsch, J. (2021). Justice sensitivity is positively and negatively related to prejudice and discrimination. International Journal of Conflict and Violence (IJCV), 15. https://doi.org/10.11576/IJCV-4463Google Scholar
Braithwaite, J. (2014). Limits on violence; limits on responsive regulatory theory. Law & Policy, 36(4), 432–456. https://doi.org/10.1111/lapo.12026CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz. (2023). Verfassungsschutzbericht 2022. Bundesministerium des Inneren und für Heimat.Google Scholar
Bundeszentrale für Politische Bildung. (2017). Verbreitung demokratischer Staaten. www.bpb.de/kurz-knapp/zahlen-und-fakten/globalisierung/52838/verbreitung-demokratischer-staaten/Google Scholar
Byman, D. L. (2023, May 16). Countering organized violence in the United States. Testimony provided to the US House of Representatives Committee on Homeland Security’s Subcommittee on Oversight, Investigations, and Accountability. www.brookings.edu/articles/countering-organized-violence-in-the-united-states/Google Scholar
Campbell, B. B. (2000). Death squads: Definition, problems, and historical context. In Campbell, B. B., & Brenner, A. D. (Eds.), Death squads in global perspective: Murder with deniability (pp. 1–26). Palgrave Macmillan US. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230108141_1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, Z., Poon, K.-T., DeWall, C. N., & Jiang, T. (2020). Life lacks meaning without acceptance: Ostracism triggers suicidal thoughts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(6), 1423–1443. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000238CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chirumbolo, A., Leone, L., & Desimoni, M. (2016). The interpersonal roots of politics: Social value orientation, socio-political attitudes and prejudice. Personality and Individual Differences, 91, 144–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.12.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Choma, B. L., & Hanoch, Y. (2017). Cognitive ability and authoritarianism: Understanding support for Trump and Clinton. Personality and Individual Differences, 106, 287–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.10.054CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Costello, T. H., Bowes, S. M., Stevens, S. T., et al. (2022). Clarifying the structure and nature of left-wing authoritarianism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 122(1), 135–170. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000341CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craig, M. A., & Richeson, J. A. (2014). On the precipice of a “majority-minority” America. Psychological Science, 25(6), 1189–1197. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614527113CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Zavala, A. G., Cichocka, A., Eidelson, R., & Jayawickreme, N. (2009). Collective narcissism and its social consequences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(6), 1074–1096. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016904CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deiwiks, C. (2009). Populism. Living Reviews in Democracy, 1, 1–9.Google Scholar
Doosje, B., Moghaddam, F. M., Kruglanski, A. W., et al. (2016). Terrorism, radicalization and de-radicalization. Current Opinion in Psychology, 11, 79–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.06.008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DPIC. (2023, June 1). Uganda’s controversial “anti-homosexuality act” includes possibility of death sentence. Death Penalty Information Center. https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/news/ugandas-controversial-anti-homosexuality-act-includes-possibility-of-death-sentenceGoogle Scholar
Duckitt, J., Wagner, C., du Plessis, I., & Birum, I. (2002). The psychological bases of ideology and prejudice: Testing a dual process model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(1), 75–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.1.75CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunbar-Ortiz, R. (2014). An Indigenous peoples’ history of the United States. Beacon Press. https://books.google.de/books?id=btpmDwAAQBAJGoogle Scholar
Dunwoody, P. T., & Funke, F. (2016). The aggression-submission-conventionalism scale: Testing a new three factor measure of authoritarianism. Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 4(2), 571–600. https://doi.org/10.5964/jspp.v4i2.168CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eckhardt, W. (1991). Authoritarianism. Political Psychology, 12, 97–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisenberger, N. I., Lieberman, M. D., & Williams, K. D. (2003). Does rejection hurt? An fMRI study of social exclusion. Science, 302(5643), 290–292. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1089134CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Engelhardt, A. M., Feldman, S., & Hetherington, M. J. (2021). Advancing the measurement of authoritarianism. Political Behavior, 45, 537–560. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-021-09718-6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faludi, S. (1991). Backlash: The undeclared war against women. Chatto & Windus.Google Scholar
Feagin, J. R. (2013). The white racial frame: Centuries of racial framing and counter-framing (2nd ed.). Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feather, N. T. (2015). Analyzing relative deprivation in relation to deservingness, entitlement and resentment. Social Justice Research, 28(1), 7–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-015-0235-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Federico, C. M., & de Zavala, A. G. (2018). Collective narcissism and the 2016 US presidential vote. Public Opinion Quarterly, 82(1), 110–121. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfx048CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Florida Senate. (2022). Parental rights in education. CS/ CS/ HB 1557 Florida Statute § 1001.42,8 c. www.flsenate.gov/Session/Bill/2022/1557/BillText/er/PDFGoogle Scholar
Foner, P. S. (Ed.). (1999). The Meaning of July Fourth for the Negro: A speech given at Rochester, New York, July 5, 1852. In Frederick Douglass: Selected Speeches and Writings (pp. 188–205). Lawrence Hill Books.Google Scholar
Franco, A. B., & Pound, N. (2022). The foundations of Bonsonaro’s support: Exploring the psychological underpinnings of political polarization in Brazil. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 32, 846–859. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2599CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freedom House (2021). India. https://freedomhouse.org/country/india/freedom-world/2021Google Scholar
Grünhage, T., & Reuter, M. (2020). Personality’s influence on political orientation extends to concrete stances of political controversy in Germany – Cross-Nationally and Consistently. Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 8, 686–707. https://doi.org/10.5964/jspp.v8i2.1133CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harnish, R. J., Bridges, K. R., & Gump, J. T. (2018). Predicting economic, social, and foreign policy conservatism: The role of right-wing authoritarianism, social dominance orientation, moral foundations orientation, and religious fundamentalism. Current Psychology, 37(3), 668–679. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-016-9552-xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henry, P. J., Sidanius, J., Levin, S., & Pratto, F. (2005). Social dominance orientation, authoritarianism, and support for intergroup violence between the Middle East and America. Political Psychology, 26, 569–584. https://doi-org.ezproxy.lib.uconn.edu/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2005.00432.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hernandez, M. (2020). Impact of unemployment and lack of education in Kenya on Al- Shabab recruitment. Walden University.Google Scholar
Hess, C. A., Gray, J. M., & Nunez, N. L. (2012). The effect of social dominance orientation on perceptions of corporal punishment. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27(13), 2728–2739. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260512436392CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ho, A. K., Kteily, N. S., & Chen, J. M. (2017). “You’re one of us”: Black Americans’ use of hypodescent and its association with egalitarianism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(5), 753–768. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000107CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Isemann, S. D., & Walther, E. (2019, June). Die AfD – psychologisch betrachtet. In Walther, E., & Isemann, S. D. (Eds.), Die AfD – psychologisch betrachtet. Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-25579-4Google Scholar
Jasko, K., LaFree, G., & Kruglanski, A. (2016). Quest for significance and violent extremism: The case of domestic radicalization. Political Psychology, 38, 815–831. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12376CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jasko, K., LaFree, G., Piazza, J., & Becker, M. H. (2022). A comparison of political violence by left-wing, right-wing, and Islamist extremists in the United States and the world. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119, 1–9. www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2122593119CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kennedy, E. J. (2019, August 26). A hero has fallen. World Without Genocide. http://worldwithoutgenocide.org/a-hero-has-fallenGoogle Scholar
Knetsch, J. L. (1989). The endowment effect and evidence of nonreversible indifference curves. The American Economic Review, 79, 1277–1284.Google Scholar
Kteily, N. S., & Bruneau, E. (2017). Darker demons of our nature: The need to (re)focus attention on blatant forms of dehumanization. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26(6), 487–494. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417708230CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Landau, P. S. (2012). The ANC, MK, and “the turn to violence” (1960–1962). South African History Journal, 3, 538–563. https://doi.org/10.1080/02582473.2012.660785CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lantos, D., & Forgas, J. P. (2021). The role of collective narcissism in populist attitudes and the collapse of democracy in Hungary. Journal of Theoretical Social Psychology, 5(2), 65–78. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts5.80CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leary, M. R. (2005). Sociometer theory and the pursuit of relational value: Getting to the root of self-esteem. European Review of Social Psychology, 16(1), 75–111. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280540000007CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, I.-C., Pratto, F., & Johnson, B. T. (2011). Intergroup consensus/disagreement in support of group-based hierarchy: An examination of socio-structural and psycho-cultural factors. Psychological Bulletin, 137(6), 1029–1064. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025410CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levin, S., Roccas, S., Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F. (2015). Personal values and intergroup outcomes of concern for group honor. Personality and Individual Differences, 86, 374–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.06.047CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lobato, R. M., Moya, M., & Trujillo, H. M. (2020). Minority- versus majority-status group intentions to transgress the law when oppression is perceived. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 20(1), 397–416. https://doi.org/10.1111/asap.12207CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Major, B. (1994). From social inequality to personal entitlement: The role of social comparisons, legitimacy appraisals, and group membership. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 26, 293–355. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60156-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Makwana, A. P., Dhont, K., De keersmaecker, J., et al. (2018). The motivated cognitive basis of transphobia: The roles of right-wing ideologies and gender role beliefs. Sex Roles, 79(3–4), 206–217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0860-xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masci, D. (2008, April 24). An argument against same-sex marriage: An interview with Rick Santorum. Pew Research Center. www.pewresearch.org/religion/2008/04/24/an-argument-against-same-sex-marriage-an-interview-with-rick-santorum/Google Scholar
McCauley, C., & Moskalenko, S. (2017). Understanding political radicalization: The two-pyramids model. American Psychologist, 72(3), 205–216. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000062CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mitchell, G., & Campbell, L. (2011). The social economy of excluded families. Child & Family Social Work, 16(4), 422–433. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2206.2011.00757.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moghaddam, F. M. (2005). The staircase to terrorism: A psychological exploration. American Psychologist, 60(2), 161–169. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.2.161CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Monkman, L. (2020, December 15). 5 years after report, Truth and Reconciliation commissioners say progress is “moving too slow.” CBC. www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/trc-5-years-final-report-1.5841428Google Scholar
Moskalenko, S. (2021). Zip-tie guys: Military-grade radicalization among Capitol Hill insurrectionists. Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict: Pathways toward Terrorism and Genocide, 14(2), 179–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/17467586.2021.1912374CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naik, D. B. A., & Kamble, D. V. S. (2015). Social dominance orientation among different social groups leads to caste discrimination attitude and communal violence in India. International Journal of Education and Psychological Research, 4, 77–80.Google Scholar
Noor, M., Shnabel, N., Halabi, S., & Nadler, A. (2012). When suffering begets suffering: The psychology of competitive victimhood between adversarial groups in violent conflicts. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 16(4), 351–374.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norris, P., & Inglehart, R. (2019). Cultural backlash: Trump, Brexit, and authoritarian populism. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oosterhoff, B., Poppler, A., & Palmer, C. A. (2022). Early adolescents demonstrate peer-network homophily in political attitudes and values. Psychological Science, 33(6), 874–888. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211063912CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petersen, R. D. (2011). Western intervention in the Balkans. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511862564CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peto, A., & Grzebalska, W. (2016). How Hungary and Poland have silenced women and stifled human rights. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/how-hungary-and-poland-have-silenced-women-and-stifled-human-rights–66743Google Scholar
Pettigrew, T. F. (2015). Samuel Stouffer and relative deprivation. Social Psychology Quarterly, 78(1), 7–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/0190272514566793CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pfeifer, M. J. (2004). Rough justice: Lynching and American society, 1874–1947. University of Illinois Press. https://books.google.de/books?id=zAGwb3G6soMCGoogle Scholar
Pfundmair, M., Wood, N. R., Hales, A., & Wesselmann, E. D. (2022, June). How social exclusion makes radicalism flourish: A review of empirical evidence. Journal of Social Issues. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12520CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pratto, F., Çidam, A., Stewart, A. L., et al. (2013). Social dominance in context and in individuals. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 4(5), 587–599. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550612473663CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pratto, F., Glasford, D. E., & Hegarty, P. J. (2006). Weighing the prospects of war. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 9, 219–233. http://doi.org/10.1177/1368430206062078CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pratto, F., Lee, I., Tan, J., & Pitpitan, E. (2011). Power basis theory: A psycho-ecological approach to power. In Dunning, D. (Ed.), Social motivation (pp. 191–222). Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Pratto, F., Lemieux, A. F., Glasford, D. E., & Henry, P. J. (2003). American and Lebanese college students’ responses to the events of September 11, 2001: The relation of hopes and fears to the psychology of group positions. Psicología Política, 27, 13–35.Google Scholar
Pratto, F., Levin, S., & Ruscowicz, A. (2023). When empathy predicts greater support for intergroup violence counter-dominance against the U.S. in Syria and Lebanon [Unpublished manuscript]. University of Connecticut.Google Scholar
Pratto, F., Liu, J. H., Levin, S., et al. (2000). Social dominance orientation and the legitimization of inequality across cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 31(3), 369–409. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022100031003005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., Bou Zeineddine, F., Kteily, N., & Levin, S. (2014). When domestic politics and international relations intermesh: Subordinated publics’ factional support within layered power structures. Foreign Policy Analysis, 10(2), 127–148. https://doi.org/10.1111/fpa.12023CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., Stallworth, L. M., & Malle, B. F. (1994). Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(4), 741–763. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.741CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pratto, F., Stallworth, L. M., & Conway-Lanz, S. (1998). Social dominance orientation and the ideological legitimization of social policy. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28(20), 1853–1875. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1998.tb01349.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reiter, J., Doosje, B., & Feddes, A. R. (2021). Radicalization and deradicalization: A qualitative analysis of parallels in relevant risk factors and trigger factors. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 27(2), 268–283. https://doi.org/10.1037/pac0000493CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Repucci, S., & Slipowitz, A. (2022). The global expansion of authoritarian rule. Freedom House. https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/2022-03/FITW_World_2022_digital_abridged_FINAL.pdfGoogle Scholar
Rudert, S. C., Möring, J. N. R., Kenntemich, C., & Büttner, C. M. (2023). When and why we ostracize others: Motivated social exclusion in group contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 125(4), 803–826. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000423CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ruisch, B. C., & Ferguson, M. J. (2023). Did Donald Trump’s presidency reshape Americans’ prejudices? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 27(3), 207–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2022.12.013CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schnepf, J. (2020). “Heimatliebe statt Marokkaner-Diebe!”: Rechtspopulistische Rhetorik und ihre Effekte auf In- und Out-Group-Ebene. Conflict & Communication Online, 19(1), 1–9.Google Scholar
Schuurman, B., Lindekilde, L., Malthaner, S., et al. (2019). End of the lone wolf: The typology that should not have been. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 42(8), 771–778. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2017.1419554CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sidanius, J., Liu, J., Pratto, F., & Shaw, J. (1994). Social dominance orientation, hierarchy-attenuators and hierarchy-enhancers: Social dominance theory and the criminal justice system. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24, 338–366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F. (1999). Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, E. R., Seger, C. R., & Mackie, D. M. (2007). Can emotions be truly group level? Evidence regarding four conceptual criteria. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(3), 431–446. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.3.431CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stewart, A. L., Pratto, F., Bou Zeineddine, F., et al. (2016). International support for the Arab uprisings: Understanding sympathetic collective action using theories of social dominance and social identity. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 19(1), 6–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430214558310CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stone, W. F. (1980). The myth of left-wing authoritarianism. Political Psychology, 2, 3–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tajfel, H. (1974). Social identity and intergroup behaviour. Social Science Information, 13(2), 65–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tajfel, H., Turner, J. C., Austin, W. G., & Worchel, S. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In Austin, W. G., & Worchel, S. (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Brooks/Cole.Google Scholar
Taspinar, Ö. (2009). Fighting radicalism, not “terrorism”: Root causes of an international actor redefined. SAIS Review of International Affairs, 29, 75–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Timberman, D. G. (2019). Philippine politics under Duterte: A midterm assessment. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://carnegieendowment.org/2019/01/10/philippine-politics-under-duterte-midterm-assessment-pub-78091Google Scholar
Track Trans Legislation. (2023). 2023 anti-trans bills. www.tracktranslegislation.com/Google Scholar
Trotta, D. (2022, March 15). U.S. report identifies misogynist “incels” as violence threat. Reuters. www.reuters.com/world/us/us-report-identifies-misogynist-incels-violence-threat-2022-03-15/Google Scholar
Türk, V. (2023, April 5). Comment by UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Volker Türk on Afghanistan. OHCHR. www.ohchr.org/en/statements/2023/04/comment-un-high-commissioner-human-rights-volker-turk-afghanistanGoogle Scholar
Turner, J. C., Brown, R. J., & Tajfel, H. (1979). Social comparison and group interest in ingroup favouritism. European Journal of Social Psychology, 9(2), 187–204. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420090207CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turner, J. H., Singleton, R., & Musick, D. (1984). Oppression: A socio-history of Black–white relations in America. Wadsworth Publishing Company.Google Scholar
UNESCO (2017). Literacy rates continue to rise from one generation to the next. UNESDOC (FS/2017/LIT/45). https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000258942Google Scholar
United Nations (n.d.). The 17 goals. Department of Economic and Social Affairs Sustainable Development. https://sdgs.un.org/goalsGoogle Scholar
van Zomeren, M., Kutlaca, M., & Turner-Zwinkels, F. (2018). Integrating who “we” are with what “we” (will not) stand for: A further extension of the social identity model of collective action. European Review of Social Psychology, 29(1), 122–160. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2018.1479347CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vincheckar, M. (2019). Social dominance orientation and sexual violence against Dalit women in India. Think India, 22, 5–12.Google Scholar
Vorsina, M., Manning, M., Sheppard, J., & Fleming, C. M. (2019). Social dominance orientation, fear of terrorism and support for counter-terrorism policies. Australian Journal of Political Science, 54(1), 99–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/10361146.2018.1552920CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vukčević Marković, M., Nicović, A., & Živanović, M. (2021). Contextual and psychological predictors of militant extremist mindset in youth. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.622571CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wahl, S., Trauntschnig, M., Hoffmann, L., & Schwab, S. (2022). Peer acceptance and peer status in relation to students’ special educational needs, migration biography, gender and socio-economic status. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 22(3), 243–253. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-3802.12562CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walsh, L. E. (1996). Iran-Contra: The final report. Random House.Google Scholar
Williams, K. D. (2009). Ostracism: A temporal need-threat model. In Zanner, M. P. (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 41, pp. 275–314). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)00406-1Google Scholar
World Population Review. (2023). Countries where women cannot vote 2023. https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/countries-where-women-cant-voteGoogle Scholar
Young, J. R. (1879). Around the world with General Grant: A narrative of the visit of General US Grant, ex-president of the United States, to various countries in Europe, Asia, and Africa, in 1877, 1878, 1879: To which are added certain conversations with General Grant on questions connected with American politics and history (Vol. 2). American News Company.Google Scholar
Zhirkov, K., Ponarin, E., & Rivera, S. W. (2023). The child-rearing scale as a measure of authoritarianism in a non-Western context: Evidence from mass and elite surveys in Russia, International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 35, 1–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×