Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-mkpzs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T21:47:12.560Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

13 - Structure and dynamics of pollination networks: the past, present, and future

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 January 2012

Sébastien Patiny
Affiliation:
Université de Mons-Hainaut, Belgium
Get access

Summary

Introduction

By far, most studies in ecology are about single species and their interactions with the surroundings, and this is also true in pollination ecology. However, species are members of communities of interacting species, i.e. networks. According to our definition, a network only includes species, whose linkage is spatially unconstrained, i.e. species may potentially meet in nature.

During the last decade, this gap between 1-species ecological research and nature’s overwhelming complexity has rapidly been bridged by a new generation of studies taking place at the network level. These studies offer fascinating new insight into a kind of natural history, which we term link ecology. In the first section, we trace the roots of pollination network ecology. Then we describe what this discipline is doing today, and finally we attempt to predict what is coming up in the near future.

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aizen, M. A.Morales, C. L.Morales, J. M. 2008 Invasive mutualists erode native pollination websPLoS 6 396CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alarcón, R. 2010 Congruence between visitation and pollen-transport networks in a California plant–pollinator communityOikos 119 35CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Albert, R.Jeong, H.Barabási, A.-L. 1999 Diameter of the world-wide webNature 401 130CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Araújo, M. S.Guimarães, P. R. J.Svanbäck, R.Pinheiro, A.Guimarães, P.Dos Reis, S. F.Bolnick, D. I. 2008 Network analysis reveals contrasting effects of intraspecific competition on individuals versus population dietsEcology 89 1981CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arroyo, M. T. K.Primack, R.Armesto, J. 1982 Community studies in pollination ecology in the high temperate Andes of Central Chile. I. Pollination mechanisms and altitudinal variationAmerican Journal of Botany 69 82CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartomeus, I.Vilà, M.Santamaría, L. 2008 Contrasting effects of invasive plants in plant–pollinator networksOecologia 155 761CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bascompte, J. 2009 Disentangling the web of lifeScience 325 416CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bascompte, J. 2009 Mutualistic networksFrontiers in Ecology and the Environment 7 429CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bascompte, J.Jordano, P. 2006 Ecological Networks: Linking Structure to Dynamics in Food WebsPascual, M.Dunne, J. A.Oxford, UKOxford University PressGoogle Scholar
Bascompte, J.Jordano, P. 2007 Plant–animal mutualistic networks: the architecture of biodiversityAnnual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 38 567CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bascompte, J.Jordano, P.Melián, C. J.Olesen, J. M. 2003 The nested assembly of plant–animal mutualistic networksProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 100 9383CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bascompte, J.Jordano, P.Olesen, J. M. 2006 Asymmetric coevolutionary networks facilitate biodiversity maintenanceScience 312 431CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Basilio, A. M.Medan, D.Torretta, J. P.Bartoloni, N. J. 2006 A year-long plant–pollinator networkAustral Ecology 31 975CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Batagelj, V.Mrvar, A. 2009 http://vlado.fmf.uni-lj.si/pub/networks/pajek/
Bauer, P. J. 1983 Bumblebee pollination relationships on the Beartooth plateau tundra of southern MontanaAmerican Journal of Botany 70 134CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bosch, J.Martin, A. G.Anselm, R.Navarro, D. 2009 Plant–pollinator networks: adding the pollinator’s perspectiveEcology Letters 12CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bundgaard, M. 2003 Tidslig og rumlig variation i et plante-bestøvernetværkAarhus UniversityDenmarkGoogle Scholar
Burgos, E.Ceva, H.Perazzo, R. P. J.Devoto, M.Medan, D.Zimmermann, M.Delbue, A. M. 2007 Why nestedness in mutualistic networks?Journal of Theortical Biology 249 307CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Butts, C. T. 2009 Revisiting the foundations of network analysisScience 325 414CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clements, R. E.Long, F. L. 1923 Experimental pollination. An outline of the ecology of flowers and insectsCarnegie Institute of WashingtonWashington DC.Google Scholar
Cowling, R. M.Campbell, B. M. 1980 Convergence in the vegetation structure in the Mediterranean communities of California, Chile, and South AfricaPlant Ecology 43 191CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dalsgaard, B.Martín, A. M. G.Olesen, J. M.Ollerton, J.Timmermann, A.Andersen, L. H.Tossas, A. G. 2009 Plant–hummingbird interactions in the West Indies: floral specialisation gradients associated with environment and hummingbird sizeOecologia 159 757CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dalsgaard, B.Martín, A. M. G.Olesen, J. M.Timmermann, A.Andersen, L. H.Ollerton, J. 2008 Pollination networks and functional specialization: a test using Lesser Antillean plant–hummingbird assemblagesOikos 117 789CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dicks, L. V.Corbet, S. A.Pywell, R. F. 2002 Compartmentalization in plant–insect flower websJournal of Animal Ecology 71 32CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dormann, C. F.Fründ, J.Blüthgen, N.Gruber, B. 2009 Indices, graphs and null models: analyzing bipartite ecological networksOpen Ecology Journal 2 7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dormann, C. F.Gruber, B.Fründ, J. 2008 Introducing the bipartite package: analysing ecological networksR News 8 8Google Scholar
Dupont, Y. L.Olesen, J. M. 2009 Modules and roles of species in heathland pollination networksJournal of Animal Ecology 78 346CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dupont, Y. L.Trøjelsgaard, K.Olesen, J. M. 2010
Elberling, H.Olesen, J. M. 1999 The structure of a high latitude plant–pollinator system: the dominance of fliesEcography 22 314CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fortuna, M. A.García, C.Guimarães, P. R. J.Bascompte, J. 2008 Spatial mating networks in insect-pollinated plantsEcology Letters 11 490CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fortuna, M. A.Stouffer, D. B.Olesen, J. M.Jordano, P.Mouillot, D.Krasnov, B. R.Poulin, R.Bascompte, J. 2010 Nestedness versus modularity in ecological networks: two sides of the same coin?Journal of Animal Ecology 79 811Google ScholarPubMed
Gibson, R. H.Nelson, I. L.Hopkins, G. W.Hamlett, B. J.Memmott, J. 2006 Pollinator webs, plant communities and the conservation of rare plants: arable weeds as a case studyJournal of Applied Ecology 43 246CrossRefGoogle Scholar
González-Álvaro, V. 2004 Estimación de la riqueza y abundancia de polinizadores potenciales basada y parámetros morfológicos florales de plantas ruderalesUniversity of Castilla-La ManchaToledo, SpainGoogle Scholar
Guimarães, P. R.Guimarães, P. 2006 Improving the analyses of nestedness for large sets of matricesEnvironmental Modelling and Software 21 15112Google Scholar
Guimarães, P. R.Machado, G.Aguiar, M. A. M. d.Jordano, P.Bascompte, J.Pinheiro, A.Furtado dos Reis, S. 2007 Build-up mechanisms determining the topology of mutualistic networksJournal of Theoretical Biology 249 181CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guimerà, R.Amaral, L. A. N. 2005 Functional cartography of complex metabolic networksNature 433 895CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hegland, S. J.Nielsen, A.Lázaro, A.Bjerknes, A.-L.Totland, Ø 2009 How does climate warming affect plant–pollinator interactions?Ecology Letters 12 184CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heithaus, E. R. 1974 The role of plant–pollinator interactions in determining community structureAnnals Missouri Botanical Garden 61 675CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herrera, C. M. 1996 Floral BiologyLloyd, D. G.Barrett, S. C. H.London, UKChapman and HallGoogle Scholar
Herrera, J. 1988 Pollination relationships in Southern Spanish Mediterranean shrublandsJournal of Ecology 76 274CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hocking, B. 1968 Insect–flower association in the high Arctic with special reference to nectarOikos 19 359CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ings, T. C.Bascompte, J.Blüthgen, N.Brown, L.Dormann, C. F.Edwards, F.Figueroa, D.Jacob, U.Jones, J. I.Lauridsen, R. B.Ledger, M. E.Lewis, H. M.Montoya, J. M.Neutel, A.-M.Olesen, J. M.Veen, F. J. v.Warren, P. H.Woodward, G. 2009 Ecological networks: food webs and beyondJournal of Animal Ecology 78 253CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inoue, T.Kato, M.Kakutani, T.Suka, T.Itino, T. 1990 Insect–flower relationship in the temperate deciduous forest of Kibune, Kyoto: an overview of the flowering phenology and the seasonal pattern of insect visitsContributions from the Biological Laboratory, Kyoto University 27 377Google Scholar
Inouye, D. W. 1978 Resource partitioning in bumblebees: experimental studies of foraging behaviorEcology 59 672CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, S. D.Steiner, K. E. 2000 Generalization versus specialization in plant pollination systemsTrends in Ecology and Evolution 15 140CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joppa, L. N.Bascompte, J.Montoya, J. M.Solé, R.Sanderson, J.Pimm, S. L. 2009 Reciprocal specialization in ecological networksEcology Letters 12 961CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jordano, P. 1987 Patterns of mutualistic interactions in pollination and seed dispersal: connectance, dependence, and coevolutionAmerican Naturalist 129 657CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jordano, P. 2010 Coevolution in multispecific interactions among free-living speciesEvolution, Education, and Outreach 3 40CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jordano, P.Bascompte, J.Olesen, J. M. 2003 Invariant properties in coevolutionary networks of plant–animal interactionsEcology Letters 6 69CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jordano, P.Bascompte, J.Olesen, J. M. 2006 Plant-Pollinator Interactions: From Specialization to GeneralizationWaser, N. M.Ollerton, Chicago, ILChicago University PressGoogle Scholar
Jordano, P.Vázquez, D. P.Bascompte, J. 2009 Ecología y Evolución de Interacciones Planta–Animal: Conceptos y ApplicacionesMedel, R.Aizen, M. A.Zamora, R.Santiago de Chile, ChileEditorial UniversitariaGoogle Scholar
Kaiser-Bunbury, C. N.Memmott, J.Müller, C. B. 2009 Community structure of pollination webs of Mauritian heathland habitatsPerspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 11 241CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kakutani, T.Inoue, T.Kato, M.Ichihashi, H. 1990 Insect–flower relationship in the campus of Kyoto University, Kyoto: an overview of the flowering phenology and the seasonal pattern of insect visitsContributions from the Biological Laboratory, Kyoto University 27 465Google Scholar
Kanstrup, J.Olesen, J. M. 2000 The Scandinavian Association for Pollination Ecology honours Knut FægriTotland, Ø.Armbruster, W. S.Fenster, C.Molau, U.Nilsson, L. A.Olesen, J. M.Ollerton, J.Philipp, M.Aagren, J.Oslo, NorwayThe Norwegian Academy of Science and LettersGoogle Scholar
Kato, M. 2000 Anthophilous insect community and plant–pollinator interactions on Amami Islands in the Ryukyu Archipelago, JapanContributions from the Biological Laboratory, Kyoto University 29 157Google Scholar
Kato, M.Kakutani, T.Inoue, T.Itino, T. 1990 Insect–flower relationship in the primary beech forest of Ashu, Kyoto: an overview of the flowering phenology and the seasonal pattern of insect visitsContributions from the Biological laboratory, Kyoto University 27Google Scholar
Kearns, C. A.Inouye, D. W.Waser, N. M. 1998 Endangered mutualisms: the conservation of plant–pollinator interactionsAnnual Review of Ecology and Systematics 29 83CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kevan, P. G. 1970 High Arctic Insect–Flower Relations: the Interrelationships of Arthropods and Flowers at Lake Hazen, Ellsmere Island, Northwest Territories, CanadaUniversity of AlbertaEdmonton, CanadaGoogle Scholar
Levin, D. A.Anderson, W. W. 1970 Competition for pollinators between simultaneously flowering speciesAmerican Naturalist 104 455CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewinsohn, T.Prado, P.Jordano, P.Bascompte, J.Olesen, J. M. 2006 Structure in plant–animal interaction assemblagesOikos 113 174CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lundgren, R.Olesen, J. M. 2005 The dense and highly connected world of Greenland’s plants and their pollinatorsArctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 37 514CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacArthur, R. H. 1972 Geographical EcologyNew York, NYHarper and RowGoogle Scholar
Macior, L. W. 1971 Coevolution of plants and animals. Systematic insights from plant–insect interactionsTaxon 20 17CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martín, A. M. G.Dalsgaard, B.Ollerton, J.Timmermann, A.Olesen, J. M.Andersen, L. H.Tossas, A. G. 2009 Effects of climate on pollination networks in the West IndiesJournal of Tropical Ecology 25 493Google Scholar
May, R. M. 1973 Stability and Complexity in Model EcosystemsPrinceton, NJPrinceton University PressGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCann, K. 2007 Protecting biostructureNature 446 29CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Medan, D.Montaldo, N. H.Devoto, M.Mantese, A.Vasellati, V.Bartoloni, N. H. 2002 Plant–pollinator relationships at two altitudes in the Andes of Mendoza, ArgentinaArctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 34 233CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Medan, D.Perazzo, R. P. J.Devoto, M.Burgos, E.Zimmermann, M. G.Ceva, H.Delbue, A. M. 2007 Analysis and assembling of network structure in mutualistic systemsJournal of Theoretical Biology 246 510CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Melián, C. J.Bascompte, J.Jordano, P.Krivan, V. 2008 Diversity in a complex ecological network with two interaction typesOikos 118 122CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Memmott, J. 1999 The structure of a plant–pollinator food webEcology Letters 2 276CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Memmott, J. 2009 Food webs: a ladder for picking strawberries or a practical tool for practical problemsPhilosophical Transactions from the Royal Society in London, B Biological Sciences 364 1693CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Memmott, J.Craze, P. G.Waser, N. W.Price, M. V. 2007 Global warming and the disruption of plant–pollinator interactionsEcology Letters 10 710CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Memmott, J.Godfray, H. C. J.Gauld, I. D. 1994 The structure of a tropical host-parasitoid communityJournal of Animal Ecology 63 521CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Memmott, J.Waser, N. M. 2002 Integration of alien plants into a native flower–pollinator visitation webProceedings of the Royal Society, London B 269 2395CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Memmott, J.Waser, N. M.Price, M. V. 2004 Tolerance of pollination networks to species extinctionsProceedings of the Royal Society, London B 271 2605CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moldenke, A. R. 1979 Pollination ecology within the Sierra NevadaPhytologia 42 223Google Scholar
Moldenke, A. R.Lincoln, P. G. 1979 Pollination ecology in montane Colorado: a community analysisPhytologia 42 349Google Scholar
Montero, A. C. 2005 Pollination Generalization Level and Habitat Width of Temperate Forest InsectsAarhus UniversityDenmarkGoogle Scholar
Montoya, J. M.Pimm, S. L.Solé, R. V. 2006 Ecological networks and their fragilityNature 442 259CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morales, C. L.Aizen, M. A. 2006 Invasive mutualisms and the structure of plant–pollinator interactions in the temperate forests of north–west Patagonia, ArgentinaJournal of Ecology, 94 171Google Scholar
Mosquin, T. 1971 Competition of pollinators as a stimulus for evolution of flowering timeOikos 22 398CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mosquin, T.Martin, J. E. 1967 Observations on the pollination biology of plants on Melville Island, NWT, CanadaCanadian Field-Naturalist 81 201Google Scholar
Müller, H. 1883 The Fertilization of FlowersLondon, UKMacMillanCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nielsen, A.Bascompte, J. 2007 Ecological networks, nestedness and sampling effortJournal of Ecology 95 1134CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olesen, J. M. 2000 The Scandinavian Association for Pollination Ecology honours Knut FægriTotlan, Ø.Armbruster, W. S.Fenster, C.Molau, U.Nilsson, L. A.Olesen, J. M.Ollerton, J.Philipp, M.Aagren, J.Oslo, NorwayNorwegian Academy of Science and LettersGoogle Scholar
Olesen, J. M.Jordano, P. 2002 Geographic patterns in plant/pollinator mutualistic networksEcology 83 2416Google Scholar
Olesen, J. M.Bascompte, J.Dupont, Y. L.Jordano, P. 2006 The smallest of all worlds: pollination networksJournal of Theoretical Biology 240 270CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olesen, J. M.Bascompte, J.Dupont, Y. L.Jordano, P. 2007 The modularity of pollination networksProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 104 19891CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olesen, J. M.Bascompte, J.Elberling, H.Jordano, P. 2008 Temporal dynamics of a pollination networkEcology 89 1573CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olesen, J. M.Dupont, Y. L.Bascompte, J.Elberling, H.Jordano, P. 2010 Missing and forbidden links in mutualistic networksProceedings of the Royal Society, London BGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olesen, J. M.Dupont, Y. L.O’Gorman, E.Ings, T. C.Layer, K.Melían, C. J.Trøjelsgaard, K.Pichler, D. E.Rasmussen, C.Woodward, G. 2010 From Broadstone to Zackenberg: space, time and hierarchies in ecological networksAdvances in Ecological Research 42 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olesen, J. M.Eskildsen, L. I.Venkatasamy, S. 2002 Invasion of pollination networks on oceanic islands: importance of invader complexes and endemic super generalistsDiversity and Distribution 8 181CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ollerton, J.Cranmer, L. 2002 Latitudinal trends in plant–pollinator interactions: are tropical plants more specialized?Oikos 98 340CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Padrón, B.Traveset, A.Biedenweg, T.Diáz, D.Nogales, M.Olesen, J. M. 2009 Impact of alien plant invaders on pollination networks from oceanic and continental islandsPLoS ONE 4 e6275CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paine, R. T. 1980 Food webs: linkage, interaction strength and community infrastructureJournal of Animal Ecology 49 667CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pauw, A. 2007 Collapse of a pollination web in small conservation areasEcology 88 1759CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Percival, M. 1974 Floral ecology of coastal scrub in southeast JamaicaBiotropica 6 104CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petanidou, T. 1991 Pollination Ecology in a Phryganic EcosystemAristotelian UniversityThessaloniki, GreeceGoogle Scholar
Petanidou, T.Kallimanis, A. S.Tzanopoulos, J.Sgardelis, S. P.Pantis, J. D. 2008 Long-term observation of a pollination network: fluctuation in species and interactions, relative invariance of network structure and implications for estimates of specializationEcology Letters 11 564CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Philipp, M.Böcher, J.Siegismund, H. R.Nielsen, L. R. 2006 Structure of a plant–pollinator network on a pahoehoe lava desert of the Galápagos IslandsEcography 29 531CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potts, S. G.Vulliamy, B.Dafni, A.Ne, eman, G.Willmer, P. G. 2003 Linking bees and flowers: how do floral communities structure pollinator communities?Ecology 84 2628CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Primack, R. B. 1983 Insect pollination in the New Zealand mountain floraNew Zealand Journal of Botany 21 317CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramos-Jiliberto, R.Domínguez, D.Espinoza, C.López, G.Valdovinos, F. S.Bustamante, R. O.Medel, R. 2010 Topological change of Andean plant–pollinator networks along an altitudinal gradientEcological Complexity 7 86CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reader, R. J. 1975 Competitive relationships of some bog ericads for major insect pollinatorsCanadian Journal of Botany 53 1300CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rezende, E. L.Lavabre, J. E.Guimarães, P.Jordano, P.Bascompte, J. 2007 Non-random coextinctions in phylogenetically structured mutualistic networksNature 448 925CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robertson, C. 1929 Flowers and Insects: List of Visitors of Four Hundred and Fifty-Three FlowersCarlinville, IL: Science PressGoogle Scholar
Saavedra, S.Reed-Tsochas, F.Uzzi, B. 2008 A simple model of bipartite cooperation for ecological and organizational networksNature 457 463CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scheffer, M.Bascompte, J.Brock, W. A.Brovkin, V.Carpenter, S. R.Dakos, V.Held, H.Nes, E. H. v.Rietkerk, M.Sugihara, G. 2009 Early-warming signals for critical transitionsNature 461 53CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schemske, D. 1983 CoevolutionNitecki, M.Chicago, ILChicago University PressGoogle Scholar
Schemske, D.Willson, M.Melampy, M.Miller, L.Verner, L.Schemske, K.Best, L. 1978 Flowering ecology of some spring woodland herbsEcology 59 351CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stang, M.Klinkhamer, P. G. L.Meijden, E. v. d. 2006 Size constraints and flower abundance determine the number of interactions in a plant–flower visitor webOikos 112 111CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stang, M.Klinkhamer, P. G. L.Meijden, E. v. d. 2007 Asymmetric specialization and extinction risk in plant–flower visitor webs: a matter of morphology or abundance?Oecologia 151 442CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stiles, F. G. 1975 Ecology, flowering phenology and hummingbird pollination of some Costa Rican speciesEcology 56 285CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Straw, R. M. 1972 A Markov model for pollinator constancy and competitionAmerican Naturalist 106 597CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sugihara, G.Ye, H. 2009 Cooperative network dynamicsNature 458 979CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, J. N. 2005 The Geographic Mosaic of CoevolutionChicago, ILChicago University PressGoogle Scholar
Traveset, A.Richardson, D. M. 2006 Biological Invasions as disruptors of plant reproductive mutualismsTrends in Ecology and Evolution 21 208CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tylianakis, J. M. 2008 Understanding the web of life: the birds, the bees, and sex with aliensPLoS Biology 6 224CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vázquez, D. P.Aizen, M. A. 2003 Null model analyses of specialization in plant–pollinator interactionsEcology 84 2493CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vázquez, D. P.Aizen, M. A. 2004 Asymmetric specialization: a pervasive feature of plant–pollinator interactionsEcology 85 1251CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vespignani, A. 2009 Predicting the behavior of techno–social systemsScience 325 425CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waser, N. M.Chittka, L.Price, M. V.Williams, N.Ollerton, J. 1996 Generalization in pollination systems, and why it mattersEcology 77 1043CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, R. J.Berlow, E. L.Dunne, J. A.Barabási, A.-L.Martinez, N. D. 2002 Two degrees of separation in complex food websProceedings from the National Academy of Sciences USA 99 12913CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woodward, G.Ebenman, B.Emmerson, M.Montoya, J. M.Olesen, J. M.Valido, A.Warren, P. H. 2005 Body size in ecological networksTrends in Ecology and Evolution 20 402CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yodzis, P. 1980 The connectance of real ecosystemsNature 284 544CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×