To understand Brexit requires not only an analysis of the result of the 23 June 2016 referendum or of the politics of the United Kingdom. We also need to look at how the other 27 member states and European Union institutions responded to it. UK–EU relations are, like any relationship, a two-way thing. By looking at how the rest of the EU responded to the renegotiation, the referendum campaign and its result we can gain a fuller appreciation of Brexit. As this book has shown, Brexit can be set against longer-term trends in EU–UK relations and has been shaped by, and in turn shaped, the national politics of 27 other member states and those of the EU’s institutions. The book has also shown how Brexit fits into a series of changes shaping the EU, Europe and, in turn, the UK.

This concluding chapter gives a brief overview in three sections of some of the key points from the book. It begins with an overview of how the rest of the EU have viewed EU–UK relations historically, before looking at the more recent developments of the renegotiation, referendum and reaction to the vote to leave, up to the triggering of Article 50. The second section looks at five themes notable throughout the book: the impact of the Brexit debate on populism and Euroscepticism; economic calculations; the importance of the UK; how significant a crisis Brexit is to the EU; and, finally, what lessons the rest of the EU have drawn from Brexit. The final section looks to Europe’s post-Brexit future, touching on debates that are ongoing as this book goes to press. Based on the analysis of how the EU responded to the renegotiation, referendum and result, what options are on the table for the future of EU–UK relations? Based on these recent events, what are the prospects for negotiating a new relationship? Finally, and most importantly from the perspective of the rest of the EU, how will Brexit play into reshaping the remaining EU as it moves forward?