Introduction

My first insight into the possibility of a negative relationship between empathy and aggressiveness dates back to the early 1980s, when I was conducting research on the effects of violent film viewing on subsequent aggressive behaviour in children. There is good evidence that violent films indeed increase aggressive behaviour, at least among some viewers, and especially so if the viewer identifies with an aggressive hero (cf. Huesmann & Eron, 1986). However, in my readings of the research literature, I came across a few reports (e.g. Baron, 1971; Hartman, 1969; see also Bramel et al., 1968) in which violent films actually reduced the aggressiveness of viewers. In these cases, empathy towards the victim appears to have been the crucial intervening variable. In these films, pain cues of victims of violence were presented in a way that awakened feelings of empathy, and the viewer identified with the victim rather than with the perpetrator of aggression. Such films are regrettably few, however, within the violent film entertainment business. In my own research (Björkqvist, 1985), I found that film violence presented in a humorous way, making the viewer laugh at the victim, increased the aggressiveness of viewers more than realistic presentation of violence did. In films with a humorous aggressive content, the victim is objectified and dehumanized, and empathy is reduced. Also Feshbach (1988) suggests that regular television is not likely to increase empathy, rather the opposite.