Adams, R. B., Albohn, D. N., & Kveraga, K. (2017). Social vision: Applying a social-functional approach to face and expression perception. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26, 243–248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Adams, R. B. Jr., Franklin, R. G. Jr., Nelson, A. J., & Stevenson, M. T. (2011). Compound social cues in face processing. In Adams, R. B. Jr., Ambady, N., Nakayama, K., & Shimojo, S. (eds.), The science of social vision (pp. 90–107). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Adams, R. B. Jr., Garrido, C. O., Albohn, D. N., Hess, U., & Kleck, R. E. (2016). What facial appearance reveals over time: When perceived expressions in neutral faces reveal stable emotion dispositions. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 986.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Albohn, D. N., & Adams, R. B. (2021a). Emotion residue in neutral faces: implications for impression formation. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 12(4), 479–486.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Albohn, D. N. & Adams, R. B. (2021b). The expressive triad: Structure, color, and texture similarity of emotion expressions predict impressions of neutral faces. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 612913.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Albohn, D. N., & Adams, R. B. Jr. (2020). Everyday beliefs about emotion perceptually derived from neutral facial appearance. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 264.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Andreoletti, C., Leszczynski, J. P., & Disch, W. B. (2015) Gender, race, and age: The content of compound stereotypes across the life span. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 81(1–2), 27–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Bailey, P. E., Slessor, G., Rieger, M., et al. (2015). Trust and trustworthiness in young and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 30, 977–986.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Barber, S. J., Lee, H., Becerra, J., & Tate, C. C. (2019). Emotional expressions affect perceptions of younger and older adults’ everyday competence. Psychology and Aging, 34(7), 991–1004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Blair, I. V., Judd, C. M., Sadler, M. S., & Jenkins, C. (2002). The role of Afrocentric features in person perception: Judging by features and categories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 5–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Boshyan, J., Zebrowitz, L. A., Franklin, R. G. Jr., McCormick, C. M., & Carré, J. M. (2014). Age similarities in recognizing threat from faces and diagnostic cues. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69, 710–718.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Carré, J. M., & McCormick, C. M. (2008). In your face: Facial metrics predict aggressive behaviour in the laboratory and in varsity and professional hockey players. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 275(1651), 2651–2656.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Cecil, V., Pendry, L. F., Salvatore, J., Mycroft, H., & Kurz, T. (2022). Gendered ageism and gray hair: Must older women choose between feeling authentic and looking competent? Journal of Women & Aging, 34, 210–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Cogsdill, E. J., Todorov, A. T., Spelke, E. S., & Banaji, M. R. (2014). Inferring character from faces: A developmental study. Psychological Science, 25(5), 1132–1139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Cotofana, S., Fratila, A. A., Schenck, T. L., et al. (2016). The anatomy of the aging face: A review. Facial Plastic Surgery, 32(3), 253–260.Google ScholarPubMed

Cuddy, A. J., & Fiske, S. T. (2002). Doddering, but dear: Process, content, and function in stereotyping of elderly people. In Nelson, T. D. (ed.) Ageism (pp. 3–26). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dion, K. K., Berscheid, E., & Walster, E. (1972). What is beautiful is good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 285–290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Eagly, A. H., Ashmore, R. D., Makhijani, M. G., & Longo, L. C. (1991). What is beautiful is good, but … : A meta-analytic review of research on the physical attractiveness stereotype. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 109–128. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.110.1.109CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fölster, M., Hess, U., & Werheid, K. (2014). Facial age affects emotional expression decoding. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Franklin, R. G. Jr., & Adams, R. B. Jr. (2010). The two halves of beauty: Laterality and the duality of facial attractiveness. Brain and Cognition, 72, 300–305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Franklin, R. G. Jr., Adams, R. B. Jr., Steiner, T. G., & Zebrowitz, L. A. (2019) Reading the lines of the face: Angularity and roundness in perceiving facial anger and joy. Emotion, 19, 209–218. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/emo0000423CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Franklin, R. G. Jr., & Zebrowitz, L. A. (2013). Older adults’ trait impressions of faces are sensitive to subtle resemblance to emotions. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 37(3), 139–151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Franklin, R. G. Jr., & Zebrowitz, L. A. (2016). The influence of political candidates’ facial appearance on older and younger adults’ voting choices and actual electoral success. Cogent OA Psychology. http://10.1080/23311908.2016.1151602CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Freudenberg, M., Adams, R. B. Jr., Kleck, R. E., & Hess, U. (2015). Through a glass darkly: Facial wrinkles affect our processing of emotion in the elderly. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1476.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Freudenberg, M., Albohn, D. N., Kleck, R. E., Adams, R. B. Jr., & Hess, U. (2020). Emotional stereotypes on trial: Implicit emotion associations for young and old adults. Emotion, 20, 1244–1254.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Friedman, O. (2005). Changes associated with the aging face. Facial Plastic Surgery Clinics, 13, 371–380.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Galton, F. (1883). Inquiries into human faculty and its development. London: Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Giacomin, M., & Rule, N. O. (2020). How static facial cues relate to real-world leaders’ success: a review and meta-analysis. European Review of Social Psychology, 31(1), 120–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception. Boston, MA: Houghton, Mifflin and Company.Google Scholar

Gregoratos, G. (2001). Clinical manifestations of acute myocardial infarction in older patients. The American Journal of Geriatric Cardiology, 10(6), 345–347.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Griffin, A. M., & Langlois, J. H. (2006). Stereotype directionality and attractiveness stereotyping: Is beauty good or is ugly bad?. Social Cognition, 24(2), 187–206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

He, D., Workman, C. I., Kenett, Y. N., He, X., & Chatterjee, A. (2021). The effect of aging on facial attractiveness: An empirical and computational investigation. Acta Psychologica, 219, 103385.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hess, U., Adams, R. B., & Kleck, R. E. (2008). The devil is in the details: The meanings of faces and how they influence the meanings of facial expressions. In Or, J. (ed.), Affective computing: Focus on emotion expression, synthesis, and recognition (pp. 45–56) (I-techonline/I-Tech). www.intechopen.com/books/affective_computing/the_devil_is_in_the_details_-_the_meanings_of_faces_and_how_they_influence_the_meanings_of_facial. http://10.5772/6187CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hess, U., Adams, R. B. Jr., Simard, A., Stevenson, M. T., & Kleck, R. E. (2012). Smiling and sad wrinkles: Age-related changes in the face and the perception of emotions and intentions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 1377–1380.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hummert, M. L. (1994). Physiognomic cues to age and the activation of stereotypes of the elderly in interaction. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 39(1), 5–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hummert, M. L. (2011). Age stereotypes and aging. In Handbook of the psychology of aging (pp. 249–262). Amsterdam: Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hummert, M. L., Garstka, T. A., & Shaner, J. L. (1997). Stereotyping of older adults: The role of target facial cues and perceiver characteristics. Psychology and Aging, 12(1), 107–114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Knight, R. L., Chalabaev, A., McNarry, M. A., Mackintosh, K. A., & Hudson, J. (2022). Do age stereotype‐based interventions affect health‐related outcomes in older adults? A systematic review and future directions. British Journal of Health Psychology, 27, 338–373.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Kutschera, U. (2018). Darwin’s nose: The revival of physiognomy at Stanford University. Japan Journal of Medicine, 1, 243–246. http://10.31488/jjm.1000124Google Scholar

Langlois, J. H., Kalakanis, L., Rubenstein, A. J., et al. (2000). Maxims or myths of beauty? A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 390–423.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Lautenbacher, S., Walz, A. L., & Kunz, M. (2018). Using observational facial descriptors to infer pain in persons with and without dementia. BMC Geriatrics, 18(1), 1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Lavater, J. C., & Gessner, G. (1848). Essays on physiognomy: Designed to promote the knowledge and the love of mankind. London: W. Tegg.Google Scholar

Malatesta, C. Z., Fiore, M. J., & Messina, J. J. (1987). Affect, personality, and facial expressive characteristics of older people. Psychology and Aging, 2, 64–69. http://10.1037/0882-7974.2.1.64CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Matheson, D. H. (1997). The painful truth: Interpretation of facial expressions of pain in older adults. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 21, 223–238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mathews, A., Mackintosh, B., & Fulcher, E. P. (1997). Cognitive biases in anxiety and attention to threat. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 1(9), 340–345.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Mendelson, B., & Wong, C. H. (2020). Changes in the facial skeleton with aging: Implications and clinical applications in facial rejuvenation. Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 44, 1151–1158.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Miller, P. S. (1955). Old age in the Greek poets. The Classical Weekly, 48(13), 177–182.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ng, S. Y., Zebrowitz, L. A., & Franklin, R. G. Jr. (2016). Age differences in the differentiation of trait impressions from faces. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 71, 220–229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Olivola, C. Y., Funk, F., & Todorov, A. (2014). Social attributions from faces bias human choices. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18(11), 566–570.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Oosterhof, N. N., & Todorov, A. (2008). The functional basis of face evaluation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(32), 11087–11092.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Palumbo, R., Adams, R. B. Jr., Hess, U., Kleck, R. E., & Zebrowitz, L. (2017). Age and gender differences in facial attractiveness, but not emotion resemblance, contribute to age and gender stereotypes. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1704.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Potter, T., & Corneille, O. (2008). Locating attractiveness in the face space: Faces are more attractive when closer to their group prototype. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 15(3), 615–622.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Rule, N. O., & Ambady, N. (2008). The face of success: Inferences from chief executive officers’ appearance predict company profits. Psychological Science, 19, 109–111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Todorov, A., Mandisodza, A. N., Goren, A., & Hall, C. C. (2005). Inferences of competence from faces predict election outcomes. Science, 308, 1623–1626.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ward, R., Jones, R., Hughes, J., Humberstone, N., & Pearson, R. (2008). Intersections of ageing and sexuality: Accounts from older people. In Ward, R. & Bytheway, B. (eds.), Researching age and multiple discrimination (pp. 45–72). London: Centre for Policy on Ageing. http://oro.open.ac.uk/id/eprint/27390Google Scholar

Watier, N. (2018). The saliency of angular shapes in threatening and nonthreatening faces. Perception, 47(3), 306–329.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Welling, L. L. M., Conway, C. A., Debruine, L. M., & Jones, B. C. (2007). Perceived vulnerability to disease is positively related to the strength of preferences for apparent health in faces. Journal of Evolutionary Psychology, 5, 131–139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Willis, J., & Todorov, A. (2006). First impressions: Making up your mind after a 100-ms exposure to a face. Psychological Science, 17, 592–598.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Wilson, J. P., & Rule, N. O. (2016). Hypothetical sentencing decisions are associated with actual capital punishment outcomes: The role of facial trustworthiness. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 7, 331–338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Zebrowitz, L. A. (1997). Reading faces: Window to the soul? Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar

Zebrowitz, L. A. (2017). First impressions from faces. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26(3), 237–242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Zebrowitz, L. A., Fellous, J. M., Mignault, A., & Andreoletti, C. (2003). Trait impressions as overgeneralized responses to adaptively significant facial qualities: Evidence from connectionist modeling. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 7, 194–215.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Zebrowitz, L. A., & Franklin, R. G. Jr. (2014). Changes in the attractiveness halo effect and the babyface stereotype in older adulthood. Experimental Aging Research, 40, 375–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Zebrowitz, L. A., Franklin, R. G. Jr., Boshyan, J., et al. (2014). Older and younger adults’ accuracy in discerning competence and health in older and younger faces. Psychology and Aging, 29, 454–468.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Zebrowitz, L. A., Franklin, R. G. Jr. Hillman, S., & Boc, H. (2013). Comparing older and younger adults’ first impressions from faces. Psychology and Aging, 28, 202–212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Zebrowitz, L. A., Kikuchi, M., & Fellous, J. M. (2010). Facial resemblance to emotions: group differences, impression effects, and race stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 175–189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Zebrowitz, L. A., & Montepare, J. M. (1992). Impressions of babyfaced males and females across the lifespan. Developmental Psychology, 28, 1143–1152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Zebrowitz, L. A., & Montepare, J. (2006). The ecological approach to person perception: Evolutionary roots and contemporary offshoots. In Schaller, M., Simpson, J. A., & Kenrick, D. T. (eds.), Evolution and social psychology (pp. 81–113). Madison, CT: Psychology Press.Google Scholar

Zebrowitz, L. A., & Montepare, J. M. (2008). Social psychological face perception: Why appearance matters. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2, 1497–1517.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Zebrowitz, L. A., & Montepare, J. M. (2013). Faces and first impressions. In Bargh, J. and Borgida, G. (eds.), Handbook of personality and social psychology, Vol. 1: Attitudes and social cognition. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar

Zebrowitz, L. A., & Rhodes, G. (2004). Sensitivity to “bad genes” and the anomalous face overgeneralization effect: Cue validity, cue utilization, and accuracy in judging intelligence and health. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 28(3), 167–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Zebrowitz, L. A., Voinescu, L., & Collins, M. A. (1996). “Wide-eyed” and” crooked-faced”: Determinants of perceived and real honesty across the life span. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 1258–1269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Zebrowitz, L. A., Wang, R., Bronstad, P. M., et al. (2012). First impressions from faces among US and culturally isolated Tsimane’ people in the Bolivian rainforest. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 43(1), 119–134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Adams, R. B. Jr., Ambady, N., Nakayama, K., & Shimojo, S. (eds.), (2010). The science of social vision. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Adams, R. B. Jr., Ambady, N., Macrae, C. N., & Kleck, R. E. (2006). Emotional expressions forecast approach-avoidance behavior. Motivation & Emotion, 30, 179–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-006-9020-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Adams, R. B. Jr., Albohn, D. N., Hedgecoth, N., Garrido, C. O., & Adams, K. D. (2022). Angry White faces: A contradiction of racial stereotypes and emotion-resembling appearance. Affective Science, 3(1), 46–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-021-00091-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Adams, R. B. Jr., Albohn, D. N., & Kveraga, K. (2017). Social vision: Applying a social-functional approach to face and expression perception. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26(3), 243–248. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0963721417706392CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Adams, R. B. Jr., Franklin, R. G. Jr., Nelson, A. J., et al. (2011). Differentially tuned responses to severely restricted versus prolonged awareness of threat: A preliminary fMRI investigation. Brain and Cognition, 77(1), 113–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2011.05.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Adams, R. B. Jr., Garrido, C. O., Albohn, D. N., Hess, U., & Kleck, R. E. (2016). What facial appearance reveals over time: When perceived expressions in neutral faces reveal stable emotion dispositions. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 986. https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00986CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Adams, R. B. Jr., Gordon, H. L., Baird, A. A., Ambady, N., & Kleck, R. E. (2003). Effects of gaze on amygdala sensitivity to anger and fear faces. Science, 300(5625), 1536–1536. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1082244CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Adams, R. B. Jr., Hess, U., & Kleck, R. E. (2015). The intersection of gender-related facial appearance and facial displays of emotion. Emotion Review, 7(1), 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073914544407CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Adams, R. B. Jr., & Kleck, R. E. (2003). Perceived gaze direction and the processing of facial displays of emotion. Psychological Science, 14(6), 644–647. https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.0956-7976.2003.psci_1479.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

AdamsJr., R. B. Jr., & Nelson, A. J. (2011). Intersecting identities and expressions: The compound nature of social perception. In The Oxford handbook of social neuroscience (pp. 394–403). Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195342161.001.0001Google Scholar

Adams, R. B. Jr., Nelson, A. J., Soto, J. A., Hess, U., & Kleck, R. E. (2012). Emotion in the neutral face: A mechanism for impression formation? Cognition and Emotion, 26(3), 431–441. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.666502CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Adams, R. B. Jr., Pauker, K., & Weisbuch, M. (2010). Looking the other way: The role of gaze direction in the cross-race memory effect. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 478–481.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Albohn, D. N., & Adams, R. B. Jr. (2020). Everyday beliefs about emotion perceptually derived from neutral facial appearance. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 264. www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00264CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Albohn, D. N., & Adams, R. B. Jr. (2021). The expressive triad: Structure, color, and texture similarity of emotion expressions predict impressions of neutral faces. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 612923. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.612923CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Albohn, D. N., & Adams, R. B. Jr. (2022). The social face hypothesis. Affective Science 3(3), 539–545. http://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00116-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Alexis, A. F., Grimes, P., Boyd, C., et al. (2019) Racial and ethnic differences in self-assessed facial aging in women: Results from a multinational study. Dermatologic Surgery, 45, 1635–1648. https://doi:10.1097/DSS.0000000000002237. PMID: 31702594CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar

Atkinson, A. P., Dittrich, W. H., Gemmell, A. J., & Young, A. W. (2004). Emotion perception from dynamic and static body expressions in point-light and full-light displays. Perception, 33(6), 717–746. https://doi.org/10.1068/p5096CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Aviezer, H., Trope, Y., & Todorov, A. (2012). Body cues, not facial expressions, discriminate between intense positive and negative emotions. Science, 338(6111), 1225–1229. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1224313CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Barber, S. J., Lee, H., Becerra, J., & Tate, C. C. (2019). Emotional expressions affect perceptions of younger and older adults’ everyday competence. Psychology and Aging, 34(7), 991–1004. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000405CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Baron-Cohen, S. (1997). Theory of mind and face-processing: How do they interact in development and psychopathology? New York: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar

Becker, D. V. (2017). Facial gender interferes with decisions about facial expressions of anger and happiness. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 146(4), 457–463. http://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000279CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Becker, D. V., Kenrick, D. T., Neuberg, S. L., Blackwell, K. C., & Smith, D. M. (2007). The confounded nature of angry men and happy women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(2), 179–190. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.2.179CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Belgrave, F. Z., & Abrams, J. A., (2016). Reducing disparities and achieving equity in African American women’s health. American Psychologist, 71(8), 723–733. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000081CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Bijlstra, G., Kleverwal, D., van Lent, T., & Holland, R. W. (2019). Evaluations versus stereotypes in emotion recognition: A replication and extension of Craig and Lipp’s (2018) study on facial age cues. Cognition and Emotion, 33(2), 386–389. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2018.1526778CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bjornsdottir, R. T., & Rule, N. (2017). The visibility of social class from facial cues. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(4), 530–546. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000091CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Bjornsdottir, R. T., & Rule, N. O. (2020). Negative emotion and perceived social class. Emotion, 20(6), 1031–1041. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000613CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Blais, C., Jack, R. E., Scheepers, C., Fiset, D., & Caldara, R. (2008). Culture shapes how we look at faces. PLOS ONE, 3(8), e3022. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0003022CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bodenhausen, G. V., Macrae, C. N., & Garst, J. (1998). Stereotypes in thought and deed: Social-cognitive origins of intergroup discrimination. In Intergroup cognition and intergroup behavior (pp. 311–335). Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar

Borod, J. C., Yecker, S. A., Brickman, A. M., et al. (2004). Changes in posed facial expression of emotion across the adult life span. Experimental Aging Research, 30(4), 305–331. https://doi.org/10.1080/03610730490484399CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Briton, N. J., & Hall, J. A. (1995). Beliefs about female and male nonverbal communication. Sex Roles, 32(1), 79–90. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01544758CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bruce, V. & Young, A. (1986). Understanding face recognition. British Journal of Psychology, 77, 305–327. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1986.tb02199.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Budiman, A., & Ruiz, N. G. (2021). Key facts about Asian Americans, a diverse and growing population. Pew Research Center. www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/04/29/key-facts-about-asian-americans/Google Scholar

Carstensen, L. L., Turan, B., Scheibe, S., et al. (2011). Emotional experience improves with age: Evidence based on over ten years of experience sampling. Psychology and Aging, 26(1), 21–33. https://doi-org.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/10.1037/a0021285CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Chiao, J. Y., Adams, R. B. Jr., Tse, P., et al. (2008). Distinct neural systems underlying the perception of social dominance from facial cues. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 11, 201–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chrisler, J. C., Barney, A., & Palatino, B. (2016). Ageism can be hazardous to women’s health: Ageism, sexism, and stereotypes of older women in the healthcare system. Journal of Social Issues, 72(1), 86–104. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12157CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Coles, S. M., & Pasek, J. (2020). Intersectional invisibility revisited: How group prototypes lead to the erasure and exclusion of Black women. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 6(4), 314–324. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000256CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cooke, A. N., & Halberstadt, A. G. (2021). Adultification, anger bias, and adults’ different perceptions of Black and White children. Cognition and Emotion, 35(7), 1416–1422. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2021.1950127CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Craig, B. M., & Lee, A. J. (2020). Stereotypes and structure in the interaction between facial emotional expression and sex characteristics. Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology, 6(2), 212–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40750-020-00141-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Craig, B. M., & Lipp, O. V. (2018). The influence of multiple social categories on emotion perception. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 75, 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2017.11.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Craig, B. M., Mallan, K. M., & Lipp, O. V. (2012). The effect of poser race on the happy categorization advantage depends on stimulus type, set size, and presentation duration. Emotion, 12(6), 1303–1314. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028622CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241–1300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

de Gelder, B. (2009). Why bodies? Twelve reasons for including bodily expressions in affective neuroscience. Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, 364(1535), 3475–3484. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0190CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

de Gelder, B., Morris, J. S., & Dolan, R. J. (2005). Unconscious fear influences emotional awareness of faces and voices. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 102, 18682–18687.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Dittrich, W. H., Troscianko, T., Lea, S. E. G., & Morgan, D. (1996). Perception of emotion from dynamic point-light displays represented in dance. Perception, 25(6), 727–738. https://doi.org/10.1068/p250727CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Donders, N. C., Correll, J., & Wittenbrink, B. (2008). Danger stereotypes predict racially biased attentional allocation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(5), 1328–1333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.04.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dunbar, R. I. M. (1998). The social brain hypothesis. Evolutionary Anthropology, 6, 178–190.3.0.CO;2-8>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Eagly, A. H., & Steffen, V. J. (1984). Gender stereotypes stem from the distribution of women and men into social roles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(4), 735–754. https://doi-org.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/10.1037/0022-3514.46.4.735CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Eagly, A., Nater, C., Miller, D., Kaufmann, M., & Sczesny, S. (2020). Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018. American Psychologist, 75(3), 301–315. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000494CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ebner, N. C. (2008). Age of face matters: Age-group differences in ratings of young and old faces. Behavior Research Methods, 40(1), 130–136. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.1.130CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ebner, N. C., & Johnson, M. K. (2009). Young and older emotional faces: Are there age-group differences in expression identification and memory? Emotion (Washington, D.C.), 9(3), 329–339. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015179CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ekman, P., Friesen, W. V., O’Sullivan, M., et al. (1987). Universals and cultural differences in the judgments of facial expressions of emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(4), 712–717. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.712CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Elfenbein, H. A., Mandal, M. K., Ambady, N., Harizuka, S., & Kumar, S. (2002). Cross-cultural patterns in emotion recognition: Highlighting design and analytical techniques. Emotion, 2(1), 75–84. https://doi-org/10.1037/1528-3542.2.1.75CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Else-Quest, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2016a). Intersectionality in quantitative psychological research: I. Theoretical and epistemological issues. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(2), 155–170. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684316629797CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Else-Quest, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2016b). Intersectionality in quantitative psychological research: II. Methods and techniques. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(3), 319–336. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684316647953CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Espinoza, S., & Walston, J. (2005). Frailty in older adults: Insights and interventions. Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine, 72(12), 1105–1112. https://doi.org/10.3949/ccjm.72.12.1105CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Fausto‐Sterling, A. (2005). The bare bones of sex: Part 1 – Sex and gender. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 30(2), 1491–1527. https://doi.org/10.1086/424932CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., Glick, P., & Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 878–902. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fiske, S. T., & Neuberg, S. L. (1990). A continuum of impression formation, from category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. In Zanna, M. P. (ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 23, pp. 1–74). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60317-2Google Scholar

Fölster, M., Hess, U., & Werheid, K. (2014). Facial age affects emotional expression decoding. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 30. www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00030CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Freudenberg, M., Adams, R. B. Jr., Kleck, R. E., & Hess, U. (2015). Through a glass darkly: Facial wrinkles affect our processing of emotion in the elderly. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1476. www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01476CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Freudenberg, M., Albohn, D. N., Kleck, R. E., Adams, R. B. Jr., & Hess, U. (2020). Emotional stereotypes on trial: Implicit emotion associations for young and old adults. Emotion, 20(7), 1244–1254. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000626CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ganel, T. (2015). Smiling makes you look older. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22(6), 1671–1677. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0822-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ganel, T., & Goodale, M. A. (2018). The effects of smiling on perceived age defy belief. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 25(2), 612–616. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-017-1306-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ganel, T., & Goodale, M. A. (2021). The effect of smiling on the perceived age of male and female faces across the lifespan. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 23020–23022. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-02380-2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ghavami, N., & Peplau, L. A. (2013). An intersectional analysis of gender and ethnic stereotypes: Testing three hypotheses. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(1), 113–127. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684312464203CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gilmore, A., & Bettis, P. (2021). Antiblackness and the adultification of Black children in a U.S. prison nation. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.1293. https://oxfordre.com/education/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264093-e-1293Google Scholar

Goff, P. A., Jackson, M. C., Di Leone, B. A. L., Culotta, C. M., & DiTomasso, N. A. (2014). The essence of innocence: Consequences of dehumanizing Black children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(4), 526–545. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035663CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Goff, P. A., Thomas, M. A., & Jackson, M. C. (2008). “Ain’t I a woman?”: Towards an intersectional approach to person perception and group-based harms. Sex Roles, 59(5), 392–403. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9505-4CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Goh, J. X., & McCue, J. (2021). Perceived prototypicality of Asian subgroups in the United States and the United Kingdom. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, Article 104201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104201CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gonçalves, A. R., Fernandes, C., Pasion, R., et al. (2018). Effects of age on the identification of emotions in facial expressions: A meta-analysis. PeerJ, 6, e5278. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5278CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Grainger, S. A., Vanman, E. J., Matters, G., & Henry, J. D. (2019). The influence of tears on older and younger adults’ perceptions of sadness. Psychology and Aging, 34(5), 665–673. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000373CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Grondhuis, S. N., Jimmy, A., Teague, C., & Brunet, N. M. (2021). Having difficulties reading the facial expression of older individuals? Blame it on the facial muscles, not the wrinkles. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 620768. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.620768CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gross, J., Carstensen, L., Pasupathi, M., et al. (1998). Emotion and aging: Experience, expression, and control. Psychology and Aging, 12(4), 590–599. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.12.4.590CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Halberstadt, A. G., Castro, V. L., Chu, Q., Lozada, F. T., & Sims, C. M. (2018). Preservice teachers’ racialized emotion recognition, anger bias, and hostility attributions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54, 125–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.06.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Halberstadt, A. G., Cooke, A. N., Garner, P. W., et al. (2020). Racialized emotion recognition accuracy and anger bias of children’s faces. Emotion, 22(3), 403–417. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000756CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hass, N. C., Schneider, E. J. S., & Lim, S.-L. (2015). Emotional expressions of old faces are perceived as more positive and less negative than young faces in young adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1276. www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01276CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hass, N. C., Weston, T. D., & Lim, S.-L. (2016). Be happy not sad for your youth: The effect of emotional expression on age perception. PLOS ONE, 11(3), e0152093. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152093CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hasselmo, M. E., Rolls, E. T., & Baylis, G. C. (1989). The role of expression and identity in the face-selective responses of neurons in the temporal visual cortex of the monkey. Behavioural Brain Research, 32(3), 203–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-4328(89)80054-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Haxby, J. V., Hoffman, E. A., & Gobbini., M. I. (2000). The distributed human neural system for face perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4(6), 223–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01482-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hess, U., Adams, R. B. Jr., & Kleck, R. E. (2004). Facial appearance, gender, and emotion expression. Emotion, 4(4), 378–388. https://doi-org/10.1037/1528-3542.4.4.378CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hess, U., Adams, R. B. Jr., & Kleck, R. E. (2005). Who may frown and who should smile? Dominance, affiliation, and the display of happiness and anger. Cognition & Emotion, 19(4), 515–536. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000364CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hess, U., Adams, R. B. Jr., Grammer, K., & Kleck, R. E. (2009). Face gender and emotion expression: Are angry women more like men? Journal of Vision, 9(12), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1167/9.12.19CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hess, U., Adams, R. B. Jr., Simard, A., Stevenson, M. T., & Kleck, R. E. (2012). Smiling and sad wrinkles: Age-related changes in the face and the perception of emotions and intentions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(6), 1377–1380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.05.018CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hess, U., Blairy, S., & Kleck, R. E. (2000). The influence of facial emotion displays, gender, and ethnicity on judgments of dominance and affiliation. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 24(4), 265–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hess, U., Thibault, P., Adams, R. B. Jr., & Kleck, R. E. (2010). The influence of gender, social roles and facial appearance on perceived emotionality. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 1310−1317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hester, N., & Gray, K. (2018). For Black men, being tall increases threat stereotyping and police stops. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(11), 2711–2715. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1714454115CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hoffman, E. A., & Haxby, J. V. (2000). Distinct representations of eye gaze and identity in the distributed human neural system for face perception. Nature Neuroscience, 3, 80–84. https://doi.org/10.1038/71152CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hope, D., Bates, T., Penke, L., et al. (2013). Symmetry of the face in old age reflects childhood social status. Economics & Human Biology, 11(2), 236–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2011.06.006CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hugenberg, K. (2005). Social categorization and the perception of facial affect: Target race moderates the response latency advantage for happy faces. Emotion, 5(3), 267–276. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.5.3.267CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hugenberg, K., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2003). Facing prejudice: Implicit prejudice and the perception of facial threat. Psychological Science, 14(6), 640–643. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0956-7976.2003.psci_1478.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hugenberg, K., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2004). Ambiguity in social categorization: The role of prejudice and facial affect in race categorization. Psychological Science, 15(5), 342–345. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00680.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hummert, M. L., Garstka, T. A., & Shaner, J. L. (1997). Stereotyping of older adults: The role of target facial cues and perceiver characteristics. Psychology and Aging, 12(1), 107–114. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.12.1.107CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hummert, M. L., Garstka, T. A., Shaner, J. L., & Strahm, S. (1994). Stereotypes of the elderly held by young, middle-aged, and elderly adults. Journal of Gerontology, 49(5), P240–P249. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/49.5.P240CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Im, H. Y., Chong, S. C., Sun, J., et al. (2017). Cross-cultural and hemispheric laterality effects on the ensemble coding of emotion in facial crowds. Culture and Brain, 5(2), 125–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40167-017-0054-yCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Jack, R. E., Garrod, O. G. B., Yu, H., Caldara, R., & Schyns, P. G. (2012). Facial expressions of emotion are not culturally universal. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(19), 7241–7244. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1200155109CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Jefferies, K. (2020). The Strong Black woman: Insights and implications for nursing. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 28(4), 332–338. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078390320983900CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Johnson, K. L., Freeman, J. B., & Pauker, K. (2012). Race is gendered: How covarying phenotypes and stereotypes bias sex categorization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(1), 116–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025335CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Johnson, K. L., Iida, M., & Tassinary, L. G. (2012). Person (mis)perception: Functionally biased sex categorization of bodies. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 279, 4982–4989. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2012.2060CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Johnson, K. L., McKay, L. S., & Pollick, F. E. (2011). He throws like a girl (but only when he’s sad): Emotion affects sex-decoding of biological motion displays. Cognition, 119(2), 265–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2011.01.016CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Jones, A. L., Batres, C., Porcheron, A., et al. (2018). Positive facial affect looks healthy. Visual Cognition, 26(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506285.2017.1369202CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Jones, B., DeBruine, L., Little, A., Conway, C., & Feinberg, D. (2006). Integrating gaze direction and expression in preferences for attractive faces. Psychological Science, 17(7), 588–591. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01749.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Jura, M., & Kozak, Leslie. P. (2016). Obesity and related consequences to ageing. Age, 38(1), 23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11357-016-9884-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Kang, S. K., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2015). multiple identities in social perception and interaction: Challenges and opportunities. Annual Review of Psychology, 66(1), 547–574. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015025CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Kang, S. K., & Chasteen, A. L. (2009). Beyond the double-jeopardy hypothesis: Assessing emotion on the faces of multiply-categorizable targets of prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(6), 1281–1285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.07.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kang, S. K., Chasteen, A. L., Cadieux, J., Cary, L. A., & Syeda, M. (2014). Comparing young and older adults’ perceptions of conflicting stereotypes and multiply-categorizable individuals. Psychology and Aging, 29(3), 469–481. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037551CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kite, M. E., & Johnson, B. T. (1988). Attitudes toward older and younger adults: A meta-analysis. Psychology and Aging, 3(3), 233–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.3.3.233CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Knutson, B. (1996). Facial expressions of emotion influence interpersonal trait inferences. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 20(3), 165–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02291854CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kozlowski, L. T., & Cutting, J. E. (1977). Recognizing the sex of a walker from a dynamic point-light display. Perception & Psychophysics, 21(6), 575–580. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03198740CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kwate, N. O. A., & Threadcraft, S. (2015). Perceiving the Black female body: Race and gender in police constructions of body weight. Race and Social Problems, 7(3), 213–226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-015-9152-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

LaFrance, M., Hecht, M. A., and Paluck, E. L. (2003). The contingent smile: a meta-analysis of sex differences in smiling. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 303–334. https://doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.2.305CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Le Gal, P. M., & Bruce, V. (2002). Evaluating the independence of sex and expression in judgments of faces. Perception and Psychophysics, 64, 230–243. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195789CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Lee, S. J., & Hong, J. J. (2020). Model minorities and perpetual foreigner: Stereotypes of Asian Americans. In Nadler, J. T. & Voyles, E. C. (eds.), Stereotypes: The incidence and impacts of bias (pp. 165–174). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Leung, K. (2007). Asian social psychology: Achievements, threats, and opportunities. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 10(1), 8–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839X.2006.00205.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar

Levy, B. (2009). Stereotype embodiment: A psychosocial approach to aging. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(6), 332–336. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01662.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Lin, M. H., Kwan, V. S. Y., Cheung, A., & Fiske, S. T. (2005). Stereotype content model explains prejudice for an envied outgroup: Scale of anti-Asian American stereotypes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(1), 34–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271320CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ma, D. S., Correll, J., & Wittenbrink, B. (2018). The effects of category and physical features on stereotyping and evaluation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 79, 42–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2018.06.008CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Malatesta, C. Z., Fiore, M. J., & Messina, J. J. (1987). Affect, personality, and facial expressive characteristics of older people. Psychology and Aging, 2(1), 64–69. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.2.1.64CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Marsh, A. A., Adams, R. B. Jr., & Kleck, R. E. (2005). Why do fear and anger look the way they do? Form and social function in facial expressions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(1), 73–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271306CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Martinez, L., Falvello, V. B., Aviezer, H., & Todorov, A. (2016). Contributions of facial expressions and body language to the rapid perception of dynamic emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 30(5), 939–952. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2015.1035229CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Meeren, H. J. M., van Heijnsbergen, C. C. R. J., & de Gelder, B. (2005). Rapid perceptual integration of facial expression and emotional body language. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102(45), 16518–16523. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0507650102CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Milders, M., Hietanen, J. K., Leppänen, J. M., & Braun, M. (2011). Detection of emotional faces is modulated by the direction of eye gaze. Emotion, 11(6), 1456–1461. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022901CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Mok, T. A. (1998). Getting the message: Media images and stereotypes and their effect on Asian Americans. Cultural Diversity and Mental Health, 4(3), 185–202. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.4.3.185CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Montepare, J. M., & Dobish, H. (2014). Younger and older adults’ beliefs about the experience and expression of emotions across the life span. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 69(6), 892–896. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbt073CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Moon, G. H. (2022). Infantilization of the Asian American elderly and the nature of the media. Asian American Research Journal, 2. https://doi.org/10.5070/RJ42057357. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7n37n98gCrossRefGoogle Scholar

Nadal, K. (2019). The Brown Asian American movement: Advocating for South Asian, Southeast Asian, and Filipino American communities. Asian American Policy Review, 29, 2–11.Google Scholar

Nakamura, K., & Watanabe, K. (2019). Data-driven mathematical model of East-Asian facial attractiveness: The relative contributions of shape and reflectance to attractiveness judgements. Royal Society Open Science, 6(5), 182–189. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.182189CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Öhman, A., Juth, P., & Lundqvist, D. (2010). Finding the face in a crowd: Relationships between distractor redundancy, target emotion, and target gender. Cognition & Emotion, 24(7), 1216–1228. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930903166882CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Palumbo, R., Adams, R. B. Jr., Hess, U., Kleck, R. E., & Zebrowitz, L. (2017). Age and gender differences in facial attractiveness, but not emotion resemblance, contribute to age and gender stereotypes. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1704. www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01704CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Phelan, S. M., Burgess, D. J., Yeazel, M. W., et al. (2015). Impact of weight bias and stigma on quality of care and outcomes for patients with obesity. Obesity Reviews, 16(4), 319–326. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12266CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Pilgrim, D. (2000, November). The Brute Caricature: Jim Crow Museum. Jim Crow Museum. www.ferris.edu/HTMLS/news/jimcrow/brute/homepage.htmGoogle Scholar

Plant, E. A., Hyde, J. S., Keltner, D., & Devine, P. G. (2000). The gender stereotyping of emotions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24(1), 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2000.tb01024.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar

Pollick, F. E., Kay, J. W., Heim, K., & Stringer, R. (2005). Gender recognition from point-light walkers. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 31(6), 1247–1265. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.31.6.1247Google ScholarPubMed

Pollux, P. M. J., Hermens, F., & Willmott, A. P. (2016). Age-congruency and contact effects in body expression recognition from point-light displays (PLD). PeerJ, 4, e2796. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2796CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Purdie-Vaughns, V., & Eibach, R. P. (2008). Intersectional invisibility: The distinctive advantages and disadvantages of multiple subordinate-group identities. Sex Roles, 59(5), 377–391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9424-4CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rad, M. S., Martingano, A. J., & Ginges, J. (2018). Toward a psychology of Homo sapiens: Making psychological science more representative of the human population. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(45), 11401–11405. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1721165115CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Re, D. E., & Rule, N. O. (2016). Appearance and physiognomy. In APA handbook of nonverbal communication (pp. 221–256). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14669-009CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ready, R. E., Vaidya, J. G., Watson, D., et al. (2011). Age-group differences in facets of positive and negative affect. Aging & Mental Health, 15(6), 784–795. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2011.562184CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Riediger, M., Voelkle, M. C., Ebner, N. C., & Lindenberger, U. (2011). Beyond “happy, angry, or sad?” Age-of-poser and age-of-rater effects on multi-dimensional emotion perception. Cognition & Emotion, 25(6), 968–982. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2010.540812CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Robinson, M. D., & Johnson, J. T. (1997). Is it emotion or is it stress? Gender stereotypes and the perception of subjective experience. Sex Roles, 36(3–4), 235–258. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02766270CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rosette, A. S., Koval, C. Z., Ma, A., & Livingston, R. (2016). Race matters for women leaders: Intersectional effects on agentic deficiencies and penalties. The Leadership Quarterly, 27(3), 429–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.01.008CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rossi, A. M., Eviatar, J., Green, J. B., et al. (2017). Signs of facial aging in men in a diverse, multinational study: Timing and preventive behaviors. Dermatologic Surgery, 43, S210–S220. https://doi.org/10.1097/DSS.0000000000001293CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ruffman, T., Henry, J. D., Livingstone, V., & Phillips, L. H. (2008). A meta-analytic review of emotion recognition and aging: Implications for neuropsychological models of aging. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 32(4), 863–881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.01.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Santorelli, G. D., Ready, R. E., & Mather, M. A. (2018). Perceptions of emotion and age among younger, midlife, and older adults. Aging & Mental Health, 22(3), 421–429. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2016.1268092CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Schudson, Z., Beischel, W., & Anders, S. (2019). Individual variation in Gender/Sex category definitions. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 6(4), 448–460. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000346CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Shields, S. A. (2007). Passionate men, emotional women: Psychology constructs gender difference in the late 19th century. History of Psychology, 10(2), 92–110. https://doi.org/10.1037/1093-4510.10.2.92CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Shields, S. A. (2008). Gender: An intersectionality perspective. Sex Roles, 59(5), 301–311. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9501-8CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Smith, J., LaFrance, M., & Dovidio, J. (2015). Categorising intersectional targets: An “either/and” approach to race-and gender-emotion congruity. Cognition & Emotion, 31(1), 83–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2015.1081875CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Sobal, J., & Stunkard, A. J. (1989). Socioeconomic status and obesity: A review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 105(2), 260–275. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.105.2.260CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Tanaka, J. W., Kiefer, M., & Bukach, C. M. (2004). A holistic account of the own-race effect in face recognition: Evidence from a cross-cultural study. Cognition, 93(1), B1–B9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2003.09.011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. R. (1988). Non-conscious face recognition in patients with face agnosia. Behavioural Brain Research, 30(3), 235–249. https://doi.org /10.1016/0166-4328(88)90166-0Google Scholar

Trawalter, S., & Hoffman, K. M. (2015). Got pain? Racial bias in perceptions of pain. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 9(3), 146–157. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12161CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Van den Stock, J., Righart, R., & de Gelder, B. (2007). Body expressions influence recognition of emotions in the face and voice. Emotion, 7(3), 487–494. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.3.487CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Voelkle, M. C., Ebner, N. C., Lindenberger, U., & Riediger, M. (2012). Let me guess how old you are: Effects of age, gender, and facial expression on perceptions of age. Psychology and Aging, 27(2), 265–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025065CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Walker, P. M., & Hewstone, M. (2006). A perceptual discrimination investigation of the own-race effect and intergroup experience. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20(4), 461–475. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1191CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Walley-Jean, C. (2009). Debunking the myth of the “angry Black woman”: An exploration of anger in young African American women. Black Women, Gender + Families, 3(2), 68–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Wang, Z., He, X., & Liu, F. (2015). Examining the effect of smile intensity on age perceptions. Psychological Reports, 117(1), 188–205. https://doi.org/10.2466/07.PR0.117c10z7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Carey, G. (1988). Positive and negative affectivity and their relation to anxiety and depressive disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97(3), 346–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.97.3.346CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Weisbuch, M., & Adams, R. B. Jr. (2012). The functional forecast model of emotional expression processing. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6, 499–514.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Welch, K. (2007). Black criminal stereotypes and racial profiling. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 23(3), 276–288. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986207306870CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Wilson, J. P., Hugenberg, K., & Rule, N. O. (2017). Racial bias in judgments of physical size and formidability: From size to threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(1), 59–80. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000092CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Xie, S. Y., Flake, J. K., Stolier, R. M., Freeman, J. B., & Hehman, E. (2021). Facial impressions are predicted by the structure of group stereotypes. Psychological Science, 32(12), 1979–1993. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211024259CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Yankouskaya, A., Humphreys, G. W., & Rotshtein, P. (2014). Differential interactions between identity and emotional expression in own and other-race faces: Effects of familiarity revealed through redundancy gains. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 40(4), 1025–1038. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036259Google ScholarPubMed

Yoo, H. C., Gabriel, A. K., & Okazaki, S. (2021). Advancing research within Asian American psychology using Asian critical race theory and an Asian Americanist perspective. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 62(4), 563–590. https://doi.org/10.1177/00221678211062721CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Yoshimura, N., Morimoto, K., Murai, M., et al. (2021). Age of smile: A cross-cultural replication report of Ganel and Goodale (2018). Journal of Cultural Cognitive Science, 5(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41809-020-00072-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Zebrowitz, L. A., Kikuchi, M., & Fellous, J.-M. (2007). Are effects of emotion expression on trait impressions mediated by babyfaceness? Evidence from connectionist modeling. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(5), 648–662. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206297399CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Zebrowitz, L. A., Kikuchi, M., & Fellous, J.-M. (2010). Facial resemblance to emotions: Group differences, impression effects, and race stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 175–189. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017990CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Aznar-Casanova, J., Torro-Alves, N., & Fukusima, S. (2010). How much older do you get when a wrinkle appears on your face? Modifying age estimates by number of wrinkles. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 17, 406–421.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Baltes, M. M., & Wahl, H. W. (1996). Patterns of communication in old age: The dependence-support and independence-ignore script. Health Communication, 8, 217–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Barrett, A. E., & Montepare, J. M. (2015). “It’s about time”: Applying life span and life course perspectives to the study of subjective age. In Diehl, M. & Wahl, H-W (eds.), The Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics (Vol. 35) (pp. 1–28). New York: Springer. http://10.1891/0198-8794.35.1Google Scholar

Bonnesen, J. L., & Hummert, M. L. (2002). Painful self-disclosures of older adults in relation to aging stereotypes and perceived motivations. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 21, 275–301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brewer, M. B., Dull, V., & Lui, L. (1981). Perceptions of the elderly: Stereotypes as prototypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 656–670.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brewer, M. B., & Lui, L. (1984). Categorization of the elderly by the elderly. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 10, 585–595.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brewer, M. B., & Lui, L. (1989). The primacy of age and sex in the structure of person categories. Social Cognition, 7, 262–274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Caporael, L. R. (1981). The paralanguage of caregiving: Baby talk to the institutionalized aged. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 40, 876–884.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Caporael, L. R., Lukaszewski, M. P., & Culbertson, G. H. (1983). Secondary baby talk: Judgments by institutionalized elderly and their caregivers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 22, 746–754.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Chen, C-Y, Joyce, N., Harwood, J., & Xiang, J. (2017). Stereotype reduction through humor and accommodation during imagined communication with older adults. Communication Monographs, 84, 94–109, http://10.1080/03637751.2016.1149737CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Coupland, N., Coupland, J., Giles, H. & Henwood, K. (1991). Formulating age: Dimensions of age identity in elderly talk. Discourse Processes, 14, 87–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Coupland, N., Coupland, J., Giles, H., Henwood, K., & Wiemann, J. (1988). Elderly self-disclosure: Interactional and intergroup issues. Language and Communication, 8, 109–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Coupland, N., Henwood, K., Coupland, J., & Giles, H. (1990). Accommodating troubles-talk: The management of elderly self-disclosure. In McGregor, G. (ed.), Reception and response (pp. 112–144). London: Croom Helm.Google Scholar

Ebner, N. C. (2008). Age of face matters: Age-group differences in ratings of young and old faces. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 130–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Edwards, H., & Noller, P. (1998). Factors influencing caregiver-carereceiver communication and its impact on the well-being of older carereceivers. Health Communication, 10, 317–341.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1971). Constants across cultures in the face and emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17, 124–129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Fowler, C., Fisher, C. L., & Pitts, M. J. (2013). Older adults’ evaluations of middle-aged children’s attempts to initiate discussion of care needs. Health Communication, 29, 717–727.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Fowler, C., Gasiorek, J., & Giles, H. (2015). The role of communication in aging well: Introducing the Communicative Ecology Model of successful aging. Human Communication Research, 82, 431–457.Google Scholar

Fowler, C., & Soliz, J. (2010). Responses of young adult grandchildren to grandparents’ painful selfdisclosures. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 29, 75–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Garstka, T. A., Schmitt, M., Branscombe, N. R., & Hummert, M. L. (2004). How young and older adults differ in their responses to perceived age discrimination. Psychology and Aging, 19, 326–335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gasiorek, J., & Fowler, C. (2020). Effects of “environmental chatter” about age and aging on middle-aged and older adults’ communication and perceptions of aging efficacy. Western Journal of Communication, 84, 98–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gasiorek, J., Fowler, C., & Giles, H. (2015). What does successful aging sound like? Profiling communication about aging. Human Communication Research, 41, 577–602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gasiorek, J., Giles, H., & Soliz, J. (2015). Accommodating new vistas. Language & Communication, 41, 1–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Giles, H., Coupland, N., & Coupland, J. (1991). Accommodation theory: Communication, context, and consequence. In Giles, H., Coupland, J., & Coupland, N. (eds.), Contexts of accommodation: Developments in applied linguistics (pp. 1–68). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Giles, H., Fox, S., Harwood, J., & Williams, A. (1994). Talking age and aging talk: Communication through the life span. In Hummert, M. L., Nussbaum, J. F., & Wiemann, J. M. (eds.), Interpersonal communication in older adulthood: Interdisciplinary theory and research (pp. 130–161). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

Giles, H., & Gasiorek, J. (2011). Intergenerational communication practices. In Schaie, K. W. & Willis, S. L., Handbook of the psychology of aging (7th ed., pp. 233–248). London: Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Giles, H., Henwood, K., Coupland, N., Harriman, J., & Coupland, J. (1992). Language attitudes and cognitive mediation. Human Communication Research, 18, 500–527.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Giles, H., & Powesland, P. F. (1975). Speech style and social evaluation. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar

Giles, H., Taylor, D. M., & Bourhis, R. Y. (1973). Towards a theory of interpersonal accommodation through speech: Some Canadian data. Language in Society, 2, 177–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Giles, H., & Williams, A. (1994). Patronizing the young: Forms and evaluations. International Journal of Aging & Human Development, 39, 33–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gold, D. P., Arbuckle, T. Y., & Andres, D. (1994). Verbosity in older adults. In Hummert, M. L., Wiemann, J. M., & Nussbaum, J. F. (eds.), Interpersonal communication in older adulthood: Interdisciplinary theory and research (pp. 107–129). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

Hamilton, D. L., & Trolier, T. K. (1986). Stereotypes and stereotyping: An overview of the cognitive approach. In Dovidio, J. F. & Gaertner, S. L. (eds.), Prejudice, discrimination and racism (pp. 127–163). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.Google Scholar

Harnsberger, J. D., Shrivastav, R., Brown, W. S., Rothman, H., & Hollien, H. (2008). Speaking rate and fundamental frequency as speech cues to perceived age. Journal of Voice, 22, 58–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Harwood, J. (2000). Communicative predictors of solidarity in the grandparent–grandchild relationship. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 17, 743–766.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Harwood, J., Giles, H., Fox, S., Ryan, E. B., & Williams, A. (1993). Patronizing young and elderly adults: Response strategies in a community setting. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 21, 211–226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Harwood, J., Giles, H., & Ryan, E. B. (1995). Aging, communication, and intergroup theory: Social identity and intergenerational communication. In Nussbaum, J. L. & Coupland, J. (eds.), Handbook of communication and aging research (pp. 133–159). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar

Harwood, J., McKee, J., & Lin, M-C, (2000). Younger and older adults’ schematic representations of intergenerational communication. Communication Monographs, 67, 20–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Harwood, J., Ryan, E. B., Giles, H., & Tysoski, S. (1997). Evaluations of patronizing speech and three response styles in a non-service-providing context. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 25, 170–195.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Heckhausen, J., Dixon, R. A., & Baltes, P. B. (1989). Gains and losses in development throughout adulthood as perceived by different adult age groups. Developmental Psychology, 25, 109–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hehman, J. A., & Bugental, D. B. (2015). Responses to patronizing communication and factors that attenuate those responses. Psychology and Aging, 30, 552–560.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Herman, R. E., & Williams, K. N. (2009). Elderspeak’s influence on resistiveness to care: Focus on behavioral events. American Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease & Other Dementias, 24, 417–423.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hess, U., Adams, R. B., Simard, A., Stevenson, M. T., & Kleck, R. E. (2012). Smiling and sad wrinkles: Age-related changes in the face and the perception of emotions and intentions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 1377–1380.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Higgs, P., & Gilleard, C. (2010). Generational conflict, consumption and the ageing welfare state in the United Kingdom. Ageing and Society, 30, 1439–1451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hummert, M. L. (1990). Multiple stereotypes of elderly and young adults: A comparison of structure and evaluations. Psychology and Aging, 5, 182–193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hummert, M. L. (1994). Stereotypes of the elderly and patronizing speech style. In Hummert, M. L., Wiemann, J. M., & Nussbaum, J. F. (eds.), Interpersonal communication in older adulthood: Interdisciplinary theory and research (pp. 162–185). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar

Hummert, M. L. (1999). Age stereotyping: Social cognitive and developmental issues. In Hess, T. M. & Blanchard-Fields, F. (eds.), Social cognition and aging (pp. 175–196). New York: Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hummert, M. L. (2011). Age stereotypes and aging. In Schaie, K. W. & Willis, S. L. (eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging (7th ed., pp. 249–262). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hummert, M. L. (2012). Challenges and opportunities for communication between age groups. In Giles, H. (ed.) Handbook of intergroup communication (pp. 223–249). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Hummert, M. L. (2014). Age changes in facial morphology, emotional communication, and age stereotyping. In Verhaeghen, P. & Hertzog, C. (eds.), The Oxford handbook of emotion, social cognition, and problem solving in adulthood (pp. 47–60). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Hummert, M. L. (2019). Intergenerational communication. In Harwood, J., Nussbaum, J. F., Gallois, C., Pierson, H., & Gasiorek, J. (eds.), Language, communication, and intergroup relations: A festschrift to honor Howard Giles (pp. 130–161). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Hummert, M. L., & Flora, J. (1999). Responses to patronizing talk: Perceptions of college students and nursing home staff. Fourth International Conference on Communication, Aging, and Health. Brisbane, Australia.Google Scholar

Hummert, M. L., Garstka, T. A., O’Brien, L. T., Greenwald, A. G., & Mellott, D. S. (2002). Using the Implicit Association Test to measure age differences in implicit social cognitions. Psychology and Aging, 17, 482–495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hummert, M. L., Garstka, T. A., Ryan, E. B., & Bonnesen, J. L. (2004). The role of age stereotypes in interpersonal communication. In Nussbaum, J. F. & Coupland, J. (eds.), The handbook of communication and aging, (2nd ed., pp. 91–114). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar

Hummert, M. L., Garstka, T. A., & Shaner, J. L. (1995). Beliefs about language performance: Adults’ perceptions about self and elderly targets. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 14, 235–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hummert, M. L., Garstka, T. A., & Shaner, J. (1997). Stereotyping of older adults: The role of target facial cues and perceiver characteristics. Psychology and Aging, 12, 107–114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hummert, M. L., Garstka, T. A., Shaner, J. L., & Strahm, S. (1994). Stereotypes of the elderly held by young, middle-aged and elderly adults. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 49, P240–P249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hummert, M. L., Garstka, T. A., Shaner, J. L., & Strahm, S. (1995). Judgments about stereotypes of the elderly: Attitudes, age associations, and typicality ratings. Research on Aging, 17, 168–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hummert, M. L., & Mazloff, D. (2001). Older adults’ responses to patronizing advice: Balancing politeness and identity in context. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 20, 168–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hummert, M. L., Mazloff, D., & Henry, C. (1999). Vocal characteristics of older adults and stereotyping. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 23, 111–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hummert, M. L., & Ryan, E. B. (1996). Toward understanding variations in patronizing talk addressed to older adults: Psycholinguistic features of care and control. International Journal of Psycholinguistics, 12, 149–169.Google Scholar

Hummert, M. L., & Ryan, E. B. (2001). Patronizing communication. In Robinson, W. P. & Giles, H. (eds.), The new handbook of language and social psychology (pp. 253–269). Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar

Hummert, M. L., Shaner, J. L., Garstka, T. A., & Henry, C. (1998). Communication with older adults: The influence of age stereotypes, context, and communicator age. Human Communication Research, 25, 125–152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Huntley, R., Hollien, H., & Shipp, T. (1987). Influences of perceiver characteristics on perceived age estimations. Journal of Voice, 1, 49–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kemper, S. (1994). “Elderspeak”: Speech accommodations to older adults. Aging and Cognition, 1, 17–28.Google Scholar

Kemper, S., & Harden, T. (1999). Experimentally disentangling what’s beneficial about elderspeak from what’s not. Psychology and Aging, 14, 656–670.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Levy, B. (2009). Stereotype embodiment: A psychosocial approach to aging. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 332–336. http://10.111/j.1467-8721.2009.01662.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Lin, M-C (2020). Communication neglect, caregiver anger and hostility, and perceptions of older care receivers’ cognitive status and problem behaviors in explaining elder abuse. Journal of Elder Abuse and Neglect, 32, 235–258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Milord, J. T. (1978). Aesthetic aspects of faces: A (somewhat) phenomenological analysis using multidimensional scaling methods. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 205–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mulac, A., & Giles, H. (1996). “You’re only as old as you sound”: Perceived vocal age and social meanings. Health Communication, 8, 199–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Myers, K. K., & Davis, C. W. (2012). Communication between the generations. In Giles, H. (ed.) Handbook of intergroup communication (pp. 237–249). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

O’Connor, B. P., & Rigby, H. (1996). Perceptions of baby talk, frequency of receiving baby talk, and self-esteem among community and nursing home residents. Psychology and Aging, 11, 147–154.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Rhodes, M. G., & Anastasi, J. S. (2012). The own-age bias in face recognition: A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 138, 146–174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Riediger, M., Voelkle, M. C., Ebner, N. C., & Lindenberger, U. (2011). Beyond “happy, angry, or sad?” Age-of-poser and age-of-rater effects on multi-dimensional emotion perception. Cognition and Emotion, 25, 968–982.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ryan, E. B., Bieman-Copland, S., Kwong See, S. T., Ellis, C. H., & Anas, A. P. (2002). Age excuses: Conversational management of memory failures in older adults. Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 57B, P256–P267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ryan, E. B., & Capadano, H. L. (1978). Age perceptions and evaluative reactions toward adult speakers. Journal of Gerontology, 33, 98–102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ryan, E. B., Giles, H., Bartolucci, G., & Henwood, K. (1986). Psycholinguistic and social psychological components of communication by and with the elderly. Language and Communication, 6, 1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ryan, E. B., Hummert, M. L., & Boich, L (1995). Communication predicaments of aging: Patronizing behavior toward older adults. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 14, 144–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ryan, E. B., Kennaley, D. E., Pratt, M. W., & Shumovich, M. A. (2000). Evaluations by staff, residents, and community seniors of patronizing speech in the nursing home: Impact of passive, assertive, or humorous responses. Psychology and Aging, 15, 272–285.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ryan, E. B., Kwong See, S., Meneer, W. B., & Trovato, D. (1992). Age-based perceptions of language performance among young and older adults. Communication Research, 19, 423–443.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ryan, E. B., & Laurie, S. (1990). Evaluations of older and younger adult speakers: The influence of communication effectiveness and noise. Psychology and Aging, 5, 513–518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ryan, E. B., Meredith, S. D., MacLean, M. J., & Orange, J. B. (1995). Changing the way we talk with elders: Promoting health using the Communication Enhancement Model. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 41, 87–105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ryan, E. B., Meredith, S. D., & Shantz, G. B. (1994). Evaluative perceptions of patronizing speech addressed to institutionalized elders in contrasting conversational contexts. Canadian Journal on Aging, 13, 236–248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Sachweh, S. (1998). Granny darling’s nappies: Secondary babytalk in German nursing homes. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 26, 52–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Savundranayagam, M. Y., Basque, S. R., & Johnson, K. (2019). Feasibility of a dementia-focused person-centered communication intervention for home care workers. Clinical Gerontologist, 43, 181–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Savundranayagam, M. Y., Sibalija, J., & Scotchmer, E. (2016). Resident reactions to person-centered communication by long-term care staff. American Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease & Other Dementias, 20, 530–537.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Schmidt, D. F., & Boland, S. M. (1986). The structure of impressions of older adults: Evidence for multiple stereotypes. Psychology and Aging, 1, 255–260.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In Austin, W. C. & Worchel, S. (eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–53). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.Google Scholar

Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In Worchel, S. & Austin, W. G. (eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (2nd ed., pp. 7–24). Chicago: Nelson-Hall.Google Scholar

.Voelkle, M. C., Ebner, N. C., Lindenberger, U., & Riediger, M. (2012). Let me guess how old you are: Effects of age, gender, and facial expression on perceptions of age. Psychology and Aging, 27, 265–277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Westerhof, G. J., & Barrett, A. E. (2005). Age identity and subjective well-being: A comparison of the United States and Germany. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 60B, S129–136. http://10.1093/geronb/60.3.S129CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Williams, A., & Giles, H. (1996). Intergenerational conversations: Young adults’ retrospective accounts. Human Communication Research, 23, 220–250.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Williams, K., Kemper, S., & Hummert, M. L. (2003). Improving nursing home communication: An intervention to reduce elderspeak. The Gerontologist, 43, 242–247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Williams, K. N., Perkhounkova, Y., Herman, R., Bossen, A. (2017). A communication intervention to reduce resistiveness in dementia care: A cluster randomized controlled trial. The Gerontologist, 57, 707–718.Google ScholarPubMed