Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-669899f699-tzmfd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-24T18:04:20.486Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

1 - Overview of Economic and Financial Sanctions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 March 2025

Caf Dowlah
Caf Dowlah
Affiliation:
University of Miami Law School
Get access

Summary

The opening chapter lays the foundation for a comprehensive exploration of sanctions. It traces their historical evolution, categorizes episodes, and unveils a comprehensive typology. The chapter dissects multilateral and unilateral sanctions, secondary and extraterritorial measures, and various types, revealing strategic diversity and broad consequences. Effectiveness, especially in US sanctions, is assessed, highlighting the US’s significant role in shaping global sanctions and their impact.

Keywords

SanctionsEvolution of sanctionsTypology of sanctionsSecondary and extraterritorial sanctionsEffectiveness of sanctions
Type
Chapter
Information
Economic and Financial Sanctions of the United States
Legal Perspectives
 , pp. 1 - 27
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2025

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Adam, A., and Tsarsitalidou, S.. 2019. Do Sanctions Lead to a Decline in Civil Liberties? Public Choice, 180(3–4):191–215.Google Scholar
Afesorgbor, S., and Mahadevan, R.. 2016. The Impact of Economic Sanctions on Income Inequality of Target States. World Development, 83:1–11.Google Scholar
Albal, E. 2021. Evaluating Sanctions in the Context of International Law. Peace Review, 33(1):131–139.Google Scholar
Allen, S., and Lektzian, D. 2012. Economic Sanctions: A Blunt Instrument? Journal of Peace Research, 50(1):121–135.Google Scholar
Amerongen, O. 1980. Economic Sanctions as a Foreign Policy Tool? International Security, 5(2):159–167.Google Scholar
Asada, M. 2020. Definition and Legal Justification of Sanctions. In Asada, M. (ed.), Economic Sanctions in International Law and Practice, pp. 3–23. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Ashley, L. 2021. Unilateral Coercive Measures: Towards International Humanitarian Law and International Human Rights. In Subedi, S. (ed.), Unilateral Sanctions in International Law, pp. 233–254. Oxford: Hart Publishing.Google Scholar
Baldwin, D. 1985. Economic Statecraft. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Bapat, N., and Morgan, T.. 2009. Multilateral Versus Unilateral Sanctions Reconsidered: A Test Using New Data. International Studies Quarterly, 53:1075–1094.Google Scholar
Barber, J. 1979. Economic Sanctions as a Policy Instrument. International Affairs, 55:367–384.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beucillon, C. 2021. Introduction. In Beucillon, C. (ed.), Research Handbook on Unilateral and Extraterritorial Sanctions, pp. 1–18. Cheltenham, London: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar
Bienen, H., and Gilpin, R. 1980. Economic Sanctions as a Response to Terrorism. Strategic Studies, 3(1):89–98.Google Scholar
Biersteker, T. et al. 2018. UN Targeted Sanctions Datasets (1991–2013). Journal of Peace Research, 55(3):404–412.Google Scholar
Bothe, M. 2016. Compatibility and Legitimacy of Sanctions Regimes. In Ronzitti, N. (ed.), Coercive Diplomacy, Sanctions and International Law, pp. 33–42. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Boutros-Ghali, B. 1995. An Agenda for Peace. New York: United Nations.Google Scholar
Brzoska, M. 2003. From Dumb to Smart? Recent Reforms of UN Sanctions. Global Governance, 9(2003):519–535.Google Scholar
Casey, C. et al. 2020. The International Emergency Economic Powers Act: Origins, Evolution, and Use. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. R45618.Google Scholar
Chercheneff, L. 2021. Challenging Unilateral and Extraterritorial Sanctions under International Economic Law: Exploring Leads at the WTO and the OECD. In Beucillon, C. (ed.), Research Handbook on Unilateral and Extraterritorial Sanctions, pp. 239–256. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar
Cordesman, A., and Hashim, A.. 1997. Iraq: Sanctions and Beyond. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Cortright, D., and Lopez, G.. 1999. Are Sanctions Just? The Problematic Case of Iraq. Journal of International Affairs, 52(2):735–755.Google Scholar
Cortright, D., and Lopez, G.. 2000. The Sanctions Decade: Assessing UN Strategies in the 1990s. Boulder, CO: Lynne Reiner.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cox, D., and Drury, A.. 2006. Democratic Sanctions: Connecting the Democratic Peace and Economic Sanctions. Journal of Peace Research, 43(6):709–722.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crawford, J. 2001. The Relationship between Sanctions and Countermeasures. In Gowlland-Debbas, V., and Rubio, M. (eds.), United Nations Sanctions and International Law, pp. 57–68. The Hague: Kluwer Law International.Google Scholar
Davis, S., and Ness, I.. 2021. Introduction: Why Are Economic Sanctions a Form of War? In Davis, S., and Ness, I. (eds.), Sanctions as War: Anti-imperialist Perspectives on American Geo-economic Strategy. Leiden and Boston: Brill.Google Scholar
Dawidowicz, M. 2017. Third-Party Countermeasures and the ICJ. In Dawidowicz, M. (ed.), Third Party Countermeasures in International Law, pp. 36–71. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
deLauro, A. 2020. The UN Sanctions Regime. LUISS Academy, Working paper no 9/2018–2019.Google Scholar
Doxey, M. 1996. International Sanctions in Contemporary Perspective. 2nd ed. Houndmills: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Doxey, M. 2009. Reflections on the Sanctions Decade and Beyond. International Journal, 64(2):539–549.Google Scholar
Drezner, D. 2003. The Hidden Hand of Economic Coercion. International Organization, 57:643–659.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drezner, D. 2011. Sanctions Sometimes Smart: Targeted Sanctions in Theory and Practice. International Studies Review, 13(1):96–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drury, A. 2001. Sanctions as Coercive Diplomacy: The U.S. President’s Decision to Initiate Economic Sanctions. Political Research Quarterly, 54(3):485–508.Google Scholar
Drury, A., James, P., and Peksen, D.. 2014. Neo-Kantianism and Coercive Diplomacy: The Complex Case of Economic Sanctions. International Interactions, 40:25–51.Google Scholar
Dupont, P. 2012. Countermeasures and Collective Security. The Case of EU Sanctions against Iran. Journal of Conflict and Security Law, 17(3):301–336.Google Scholar
Early, B. 2015. Introduction: Why Busted Sanctions Lead to Broken Sanctions Policies. In Early, B., and Early, B. (eds.), Busted Sanctions: Explaining Why Economic Sanctions Fail, pp. 1–16. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Elliott, K. 2016. The Impacts of United Nations Targeted Sanctions. In Biersteker, T., Eckert, S., and Tourinho, M. (eds.), Targeted Sanctions: The Impacts and Effectiveness of United Nations Action, pp. 172–189. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Farrell, H., and Newman, A.. 2019. Weaponized Interdependence. International Security 44(1):42–79.Google Scholar
Farrall, J. 2007. United Nations Sanctions and the Rule of Law. 1st ed. London: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Felbermayr, G. et al. 2020. The Global Sanctions Database. European Economic Review, 129 (October 2020):1–23.Google Scholar
Ferrara, F. 2017. Striking a balance in the United Nations: The Need for Safeguarding Human Rights against Economic Sanctions. LUISS thesis. Available at: tesi.luiss.it/19800/Google Scholar
Franco, C. 2015. Remarks by Marco Roscini at the IAI Conference of 13 February 2015 on Coercive Diplomacy, Sanctions and International Law, book edited by N. Ronzitti. Available on the website of the Istituto Affari Internazionali.Google Scholar
Galtung, J. 1967. On the Effects of International Economic Sanctions: With Examples from the Case of Rhodesia. World Politics, 19(3):378–416.Google Scholar
Gardner, R. 1980. Sterling–Dollar Diplomacy. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Garfield, R. 1999. Morbidity and Mortality among Iraqi Children from 1990 through 1998: Assessing the Impact of the Gulf War and Economic Sanctions. Available at: www.casi.org.uk/info/garfield/dr-garfield.html.Google Scholar
Garfield, R., and Santana, S.. 1997. The Impact of the Economic Crisis and the US Embargo on Health in Cuba. American Journal of Public Health, 87(1):15–20.Google ScholarPubMed
Giumelli, F. 2016. The Purposes of Targeted Sanctions. In Biersteker, T. et al. (eds.), Targeted Sanctions: The Impacts and Effectiveness of United Nations Action, pp. 38–40. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldman, Z., and Lindblom, A.. 2021. The US Position and Practice with Regards to Unilateral and Extraterritorial Sanctions: Reimagining the US Sanctions Regime in a World of Advanced Technology. In Beucillon, C. (ed.), Research Handbook on Unilateral and Extraterritorial Sanctions, pp. 130–148. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar
Gordon, J. 1999. Sanctions as Siege Warfare. The Nation. March 22, 1999. Available at: archive.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/170-sanctions/42074.html.Google Scholar
Gordon, J. 2010. Invisible War: The United States and the Iraq Sanctions. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Gordon, R., Smyth, M., and Cornell, T.. 2019. Sanctions Law. EBSCO Publishing: eBook Comprehensive Academic Collection (EBSCOhost).Google Scholar
Gottemoeller, R. 2007. The Evolution of Sanctions in Practice and Theory. Survival, 49(4):99–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haass, R. (Ed.). 1998. Economic Sanctions and American Foreign Policy. New York: Council on Foreign Relations.Google Scholar
Hatipoglu, E., and Peksen, D., 2018. Economic Sanctions and Banking Crises in Target Economies. Defense and Peace Economics, 29(2):171–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawkins, D., and Lloyd, J.. 2003. Questioning Comprehensive Sanctions: The Birth of a Norm. Journal of Human Rights, 2(3):443–465.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helleiner, E., and Andreas, P. (Eds.). 2005. Economic Nationalism in a Globalizing World. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Herik, L. 2017. Research Handbook on UN Sanctions and International Law. Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hirschhorn, E. et al. 2022. U.S. Export Controls and Economic Sanctions. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hoffman, F. 1967. The Function of Economic Sanctions: A Comparative Analysis. Journal of Peace Research, 2:140–159.Google Scholar
Hovell, D. 2019. Symposium on Unilateral Targeted Sanctions. Unfinished Business of International Law: The Questionable Legality of Autonomous Sanctions. American Journal of International Law, 113:140–145.Google Scholar
Hufbauer, G. and Schott, J.. 1985. Economic Sanctions Reconsidered. History and Current Policy. Washington, DC: Patterson Institute for International Economics.Google Scholar
Hufbauer, G. et al. 2007. Economic Sanctions Reconsidered: History and Current Policy. Washington, DC: Patterson Institute for International Economics.Google Scholar
ILC (International Law Commission). 2001. Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (ARSIWA). New York: United Nations.Google Scholar
Ilieva, J., Dashtevski, A., , F. Kokotovic, . 2018. Economic Sanctions in International Law. UTMS Journal of Economics, 9(2):201–211.Google Scholar
IMF (International Monetary Fund). 2020. Reserve Currencies in an Evolving International Monetary System. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.Google Scholar
IMF (International Monetary Fund). 2021. Reserve Currencies in an Evolving International Monetary System. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.Google Scholar
Joyner, D. 2016. International Legal Limits on the Ability of States to Lawfully Impose International Economic/Financial Sanctions. In Marossi, A., and Bassett, M. (eds.), Economic Sanctions under International Law: Unilateralism, Multilateralism, Legitimacy and Consequences, pp. 83–93. London: Springer.Google Scholar
Joyner, D. 2017. UN Counter-Proliferation Sanctions and International Law. In Herik, L. (ed.), Research Handbook on UN Sanctions and International Law, pp. 110–121. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar
Kamto, M. 2010. The Time Factor in the Application of Countermeasures. In Crawford, J. et al. (eds.), Law of International Responsibility, pp. 1174–1176. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
LaRae-Perez, C. 2002. Economic Sanctions as Use of Force: Re-evaluating the Legality of Sanctions from an Effects-based Perspective. Boston University International Law Journal, 20(1):161–188.Google Scholar
Larsen, K. 2009. “Territorial Non-Application” of the European Convention on Human Rights. Nordic Journal of International Law, 78:56–73.Google Scholar
Lektzian, D. 2013. Making Sanctions Smarter: Are Humanitarian Costs an Essential Element in the Success of Sanctions? Oslo: International Peace Research Institute and Norges Rode Kors.Google Scholar
Lindsay, J. 1986. Trade Sanctions as Policy Instruments: A Re-examination. International Studies Quarterly, 30(2):153–173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liou, R., Amanda, M., and Peksen, D.. 2021. Revisiting the Causal Links between Economic Sanctions and Human Rights Violations. Political Research Quarterly, 74(4):808–821.Google Scholar
Lowe, A., and Tzanakopoulos, A.. 2012. Economic Warfare. In Wolfrum, R. (ed.), Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Available at: opil.ouplaw.com/display/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e292.Google Scholar
Lowenfeld, A. 2003. Trade Controls for Political Ends: Four Perspectives. Chicago Journal of International Law, 4(2):354–369.Google Scholar
Marossi, A., and Bassett, M. (Eds.). 2015. Economic Sanctions under International Law: Unilateralism, Multilateralism, Legitimacy and Consequences. London: Springer.Google Scholar
McDowell, D. 2023. Bucking the Buck: US Financial Sanctions and the International Backlash against the Dollar. New York: Oxford Academic.Google Scholar
Milanovic, M. 2011. Extraterritorial Application of Human Rights Treaties. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, C. et al. 2014. Threat and Imposition of Economic Sanctions 1945–2005: Updating the TIES dataset. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 31(5):541–558.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mulder, N. 2022. The Economic Weapon. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Murphy, J. 2000. Sanctions in Transition. London: The David Davies Memorial Institute of International Studies.Google Scholar
Nephew, R. 2020. Implementation of Sanctions: United States. In Asada, M. (ed.), Economic Sanctions in International Law and Practice, pp. 93–115. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Neuenkirch, M., and Neumeier, F.. 2015. The Impact of UN and U.S. Economic Sanctions on GDP Growth. European Journal of Political Economy, 40:110–125.Google Scholar
Neuenkirch, M., and Neumeier, F.. 2016. The Impact of U.S. Sanctions on Poverty. Journal of Development Economics 121:110–119.Google Scholar
Nincic, M., and Wallensteen, P.. (Eds.). 1983. Dilemmas of Economic Coercion: Sanctions in World Politics. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Nossal, K. 1989. International Sanctions as International Punishment. International Organization, 43:301–322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Connell, M. 2002. Debating the Law of Sanctions. European Journal of International Law, 13:63–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Offer, A. 1989. The First World War: An Agrarian Interpretation. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
OHCHR (UN Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights). 2012. Thematic Study of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the Impact of Unilateral Coercive Measures on the Enjoyment of Human Rights, Including Recommendations on Actions Aimed at Ending such Measures. (2012) A/HRC/19/33.Google Scholar
Owen, M. 2012. The Limits of Economic Sanctions under International Humanitarian Law: The Case of the Congo. Texas International Law Journal, 48:103–112.Google Scholar
Pape, R. 1997. Why Economic Sanctions Do Not Work. International Security, 22(2):90–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peksen, D. 2009. Better or Worse? The Effect of Economic Sanctions on Human Rights. Journal of Peace Research, 46(1):59–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peksen, D. 2011. Economic Sanctions and Human Security: The Public Health Effect of Economic Sanctions. Foreign Policy Analysis, 7(3):237–251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peksen, D. 2019. When Do Imposed Economic Sanctions Work? A Critical Review of the Sanctions Effectiveness Literature. Defense and Peace Economics, 30(6):635–647.Google Scholar
Rahmat, M. 2015. Unilateral Sanctions in International Law: A Quest for Legality. In Marossi, A., and Bassett, M. (eds.), Economic Sanctions under International Law: Unilateralism, Multilateralism, Legitimacy and Consequences, pp. 71–81. London: Springer.Google Scholar
Rathbone, M. et al. 2013. Sanctions, Sanctions Everywhere: Forging a Path through Complex Transnational Sanctions Laws. Georgetown Journal of Law, 44:1056–1094.Google Scholar
Reinisch, W. 2001. Developing Human Rights and Humanitarian Law Accountability of the Security Council for the Imposition of Economic Sanctions. American Journal of International Law, 95(4):851–872.Google Scholar
Reisman, W., and Stevick, D.. 1998. The Applicability of International Law Standards to United Nations Economic Sanctions Programs. European Journal of International law 9:86–141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Renwick, R. 1981. Economic Sanctions. Harvard Studies in International Affairs. Issue 45. Cambridge: Harvard University Center for International Affairs.Google Scholar
Ronzitti, N. 2016. Sanctions as Instruments of Coercive Diplomacy: An International Law Perspective. In Ronzitti, N. (ed.), Coercive Diplomacy, Sanctions and International Law, pp. 1–32. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, E. 2019. Assessing the Use of Sanctions in Addressing National Security and Foreign Policy Challenges. Washington, DC: Center for a New American Security.Google Scholar
Ruys, T. 2017. Sanctions, Retortions and Countermeasures: Concepts and International Legal Framework. In Herik, L. (ed.), Research Handbook on UN Sanctions and International Law, pp. 19–51. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar
Schwab, P. 1999. Cuba: Confronting the U.S. Embargo. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Shagabutdinova, E., and Berejikian, J.. 2007. Deploying Sanctions while Protecting Human Rights: Are Humanitarian “Smart” Sanctions Effective? Journal of Human Rights, 6(1):59–74.Google Scholar
Tsebelis, G. 1990. Are Sanctions Effective? A Game-Theoretic Analysis. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 34:3–28.Google Scholar
UNHRC (United Nations Human Rights Council). 2014. Human Rights and Unilateral Coercive Measures. UNHRC Res (03 October 2014). A/HRC/RES/27/21.Google Scholar
Wagner, R. 1988. Economic Interdependence, Bargaining Power and Political Influence. International Organization, 42:461–482.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wallensteen, P. 1968. Characteristics of Economic Sanctions. Journal of Peace Research, 3:248–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wallensteen, P. 1983. Economic Sanctions: Ten Modern Cases and Three Important Lessons. In Nincic, M., and Wallensteen, P. (eds.), Dilemmas of Economic Coercion: Sanctions in World Politics, pp. 87–130. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Watson, A. 2004. An Introduction to International Political Economy. London: A&C Black.Google Scholar
Weber, P., and Schneider, G.. 2022. Post-Cold War Sanctioning by the EU, the UN, and the US: Introducing the EUSANCT Dataset. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 39(1):97–114.Google Scholar
Weiss, T. et al. (Eds.). 1997. Political Gain and Civilian Pain. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Wilson, W. 1923. Woodrow Wilson’s Case for the League of Nations. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Wood, R. 2008. A Hand upon the Throat of the Nation: Economic Sanctions and State Repression, 1976–2001. International Studies Quarterly, 52(3):489–513.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×