Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7fkt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T04:53:34.281Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

7 - Critical Race Consciousness

Conceptualizing a Model of Race-Specific Critical Consciousness among Youth

from Part III - Societal Contexts

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 May 2023

By
Josefina Bañales ,
Adriana Aldana  and
Elan C. Hope
Edited by
Erin B. Godfrey  and
Luke J. Rapa
Erin B. Godfrey
Affiliation:
New York University
Luke J. Rapa
Affiliation:
Clemson University, South Carolina
Get access

Summary

Despite growing interest in antiracism efforts, a dearth of theoretical and empirical work that examines how youth develop beliefs and actions that challenge racism, or develop a critical race consciousness (CRC), remains. In this chapter, we propose an integrative model that articulates the nature and dynamics of youth CRC, which includes racism analysis, racial reflexivity, and antiracism action. First, we describe the nature of racism in the United States and explain how this system serves as a developmental context for youth CRC. Second, we integrate several bodies of research across diverse fields of study (e.g., liberation psychology, developmental psychology, sociology, social work) that ground our model, followed by an in-depth discussion of the model. Then we discuss psychological processes and social contexts that may facilitate or hinder CRC praxis and development. We conclude with recommendations for future CRC research and practice that may stimulate this developmental process.

Keywords

critical consciousnesssociopolitical developmentcritical race consciousnesscritical racial analysisantiracism action
Type
Chapter
Information
Developing Critical Consciousness in Youth
Contexts and Settings
 , pp. 195 - 231
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aldana, A., Bañales, J., & Richards-Schuster, K. (2019). Youth anti-racist engagement: Conceptualization, development, and validation of an anti-racism action scale. Adolescent Research Review, 4(4), 369–381. https://doi.org/gb82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aldana, A., & Byrd, C. M. (2015). School ethnic-racial socialization: Learning about race and ethnicity among African American students. The Urban Review, 47(3), 563–576. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-014-0319-0.Google Scholar
Aldana, A., Richards-Schuster, K., & Checkoway, B. (2021). “Down woodward”: A case study of empowering youth to see and disrupt segregation using photovoice methods. Journal of Adolescent Research, 36(1), 34–67. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558420933220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aldana, A., Rowley, S. J., Checkoway, B., & Richards-Schuster, K. (2012). Raising ethnic-racial consciousness: The relationship between intergroup dialogues and adolescents’ ethnic-racial identity and racism awareness. Equity and Excellence in Education, 45(1), 120–137. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2012.641863.Google Scholar
Aldana, A. & Vazquez, N. (2020). From colorblind racism to critical race theory: The road toward anti-racist social work in the United States. In Singh, G. and Masocha, S. (Eds.) Anti-racist social work: International perspectives (pp. 129–148). Red Globe Press.Google Scholar
Allen, R., & Goetz, E. G. (2021). A home for xenophobia: US public housing policy under Trump. International Journal of Housing Policy, 21(1), 127–137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Annamma, S. A., Jackson, D. D., & Morrison, D. (2016). Conceptualizing color-evasiveness: Using dis/ability critical race theory to expand a color-blind racial ideology in education and society. Race Ethnicity and Education, 20(2), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2016.1248837.Google Scholar
Anyiwo, N., Bañales, J., Rowley, S. J., Watkins, D. C., & Richards-Schuster, K. (2018). Sociocultural influences on the sociopolitical development of African American youth. Child Development Perspectives, 12(3), 165–170. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12276.Google Scholar
Anyiwo, N., Palmer, G. J., Garrett, J. M., Starck, J. G., & Hope, E. C. (2020). Racial and political resistance: An examination of the sociopolitical action of racially marginalized youth. Current Opinion in Psychology, 35, 86–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.03.005.Google Scholar
Atkin, A. L., Yoo, H. C., Jager, J., & Yeh, C. J. (2018). Internalization of the model minority myth, school racial composition, and psychological distress among Asian American adolescents. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 9(2), 108–116. https://doi.org/10.1037/aap0000096.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bañales, J. (2020). Adolescent critical racial consciousness (unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Michigan.Google Scholar
Bañales, J., Aldana, A., Richards-Schuster, K., & Merritt, A. (2021). Something you can see, hear, and feel: A descriptive, exploratory mixed-methods analysis of youths’ articulations about racism. Journal of Adolescent Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211062117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bañales, J., Hoffman, A. J., Rivas-Drake, D., & Jagers, R. J. (2020). The development of ethnic-racial identity process and its relation to civic beliefs among Latinx and Black American adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 49(12), 2495–2508. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01254-6.Google Scholar
Bañales, J., Hope, E. C., & Rowley, S. J., & Cryer-Coupet, Q. (2021). Raising justice-minded youth: Parental political and ethnic-racial socialization on Black youths’ critical consciousness. Journal of Social Issues, 77(4), 964–986.Google Scholar
Bañales, J., Lozada, F. T., Channey, J., & Jagers, R. J. (2021). Relating through oppression: Longitudinal relations between parental racial socialization, school racial climate, oppressed minority ideology, and empathy in Black male adolescents’ prosocial development. American Journal of Community Psychology, 68(1–2), 88–99. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12496.Google Scholar
Bañales, J., Marchand, A. D., Skinner, O. D. et al. (2019). Black adolescents’ critical reflection development: Parents’ racial socialization and attributions about race achievement gaps. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 30(S2), 403–417. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12485.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bañales, J., & Rivas-Drake, D. (2022). Showing up: A theoretical model of anti-racist identity and action for Latinx youth. Journal of Research on Adolescence. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12747.Google Scholar
Bañales, J., Sarissa Pech, A., Pinetta, B. J. et al. (2021). Critiquing inequality on campus and in society: Peers and faculty in civic and academic outcomes of college students. Research in Higher Education, 63, 589–609. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-09663-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnes, C. Y., & Hope, E. C. (2017). Means-tested public assistance programs and adolescent political socialization. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46(7), 1611–1621. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0624-x.Google Scholar
Barr, S. C., & Neville, H. (2008). Examination of the link between parent racial socialization messages and racial ideology among Black college students. Journal of Black Psychology, 34(2), 131–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798408314138.Google Scholar
Benner, A. D., Wang, Y., Shen, Y. et al. (2018). Racial/ethnic discrimination and well-being during adolescence: A meta-analytic review. American Psychologist, 73(7), 855–883. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000204.supp.Google Scholar
Bonilla-Silva, E. (2017). Racism without racists: Colorblind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in America. (5th ed.) Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.Google Scholar
Bonilla-Silva, E., & Embrick, D. G. (2001). Are Blacks color blind too? An interview-based analysis of Black Detroiters’ racial views. Race and Society, 4(1), 47–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1090-9524(02)00034-7.Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (2006). The bioecological model of human development. In Lerner, R. M. & Damon, W. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Theoretical models of human development (pp. 793–828). John Wiley & Sons Inc.Google Scholar
Burson, E., & Godfrey, E. B. (2020). Intraminority solidarity: The role of critical consciousness. European Journal of Social Psychology, 50(6), 1362–1377. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2679.Google Scholar
Byrd, C. M., & Ahn, L. H. R. (2020). Profiles of ethnic-racial socialization from family, school, neighborhood, and the Internet: Relations to adolescent outcomes. Journal of Community Psychology, 48(6), 1942–1963. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22393.Google Scholar
Byrd, C., & Hope, E. C. (2011, April). Understanding adolescents’ conceptions of race and ethnicity using the Q-sort: Implications for racial/ethnic identity research. Society for Research in Child Development.Google Scholar
Cabrera, N. L., Meza, E. L., Romero, A. J., & Cintli Rodríguez, R. (2013). “If there is no struggle, there is no progress”: Transformative youth activism and the school of ethnic studies. Urban Review, 45(1), 7–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-012-0220-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cammarota, J. (2004). The gendered and racialized pathways of Latina and Latino youth: Different struggles, different resistances in the urban context. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 35(1), 53–74. https://doi.org/10.1525/aeq.2004.35.1.53.Google Scholar
Cammarota, J., & Aguilera, M. (2012). “By the time I get to Arizona”: Race, language, and education in America’s racist state. Race Ethnicity and Education, 15(4), 485–500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Causadias, J. M., Vitriol, J. A., & Atkin, A. L. (2018). Do we overemphasize the role of culture in the behavior of racial/ethnic minorities? Evidence of a cultural (mis)attribution bias in American psychology. American Psychologist, 73(3), 243–255. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000099.Google Scholar
Chavez-Dueñas, N. Y., Adames, H. Y., Perez-Chavez, J. G., & Salas, S. P. (2019). Healing ethno-racial trauma in Latinx immigrant communities: Cultivating hope, resistance, and action. American Psychologist, 74(1), 49–62. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000289.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collins, P. H. (2002). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. Routledge.Google Scholar
Corning, A. F., & Myers, D. J. (2002). Individual orientation toward engagement in social action. Political Psychology, 23(4), 703–729. https://doi.org/10.1111/0162-895x.00304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crenshaw, K. W. (2017). On intersectionality: Essential writings. The New Press.Google Scholar
David, E. J. R., Schroeder, T. M., & Fernandez, J. (2019). Internalized racism: A systematic review of the psychological literature on racism’s most insidious consequence. Journal of Social Issues, 75, 1057–1086. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12350.Google Scholar
Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2017). Critical race theory: An introduction (3rd ed.). NYU Press.Google Scholar
Deutsch, N. L., & Jones, J. N. (2008). “Show me an ounce of respect”: Respect and authority in adult-youth relationships in after-school programs. Journal of Adolescent Research, 23(6), 667–688. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558408322250.Google Scholar
Diemer, M. A., Pinedo, A., Bañales, J. et al. (2021). Recentering action in critical consciousness. Child Development Perspectives, 15(1), 12–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12393.Google Scholar
Diemer, M. A., & Rapa, L. J. (2016). Unraveling the complexity of critical consciousness, political efficacy, and political action among marginalized adolescents. Child Development, 87(1), 221–238. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12446.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diemer, M. A., Rapa, L. J., Voight, A. M., & McWhirter, E. H. (2016). Critical consciousness: A developmental approach to addressing marginalization and oppression. Child Development Perspectives, 10(4), 216–221. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12193.Google Scholar
Emirbayer, M., & Desmond, M. (2012). Race and reflexivity. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 35(4), 574–599. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2011.606910.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flanagan, C. A., Kim, T., Pykett, A. et al. (2014). Adolescents’ theories about economic inequality: Why are some people poor while others are rich? Developmental Psychology, 50(11), 2512–2525. https://doi.org/f6pjfq.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flanagan, C. A., Syvertsen, A. K., Gill, S., Gallay, L. S., & Cumsille, P. (2009). Ethnic awareness, prejudice, and civic commitments in four ethnic groups of American adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(4), 500–518. https://doi.org/bjvd2k.Google Scholar
Frabutt, J. M., MacKinnon-Lewis, C., Walker, A. M., & MacKinnon-Lewis, C. (2002). Racial socialization messages and the quality of mother/childhood interactions in African American families. Journal of Early Adolescence, 22(2), 200–217. https://doi.org/dvrt76.Google Scholar
Freire, P. (2018). Pedagogy of the oppressed (MB Ramos, Trans.; 50th Anniversary ed.). Bloomsbury Publishing. (Original work published 1970).Google Scholar
French, B. H., Lewis, J. A., Mosley, D. V. et al. (2020). Toward a psychological framework of radical healing in communities of color. The Counseling Psychologist, 48(1), 14–46. https://doi.org/d7h6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
García Coll, C., Lamberty, G., Jenkins, R. et al. (1996) An integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children. Child Development, 67(5), 1891–1914. https://doi.org/cbjhg7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffin, S. R., Brown, M., & Warren, N. M. (2012). Critical education in high schools: The promise and challenges of intergroup dialogue. Equity and Excellence in Education, 45(1), 159–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2012.641868.Google Scholar
Gorski, P. C. (2019) Fighting racism, battling burnout: causes of activist burnout in US racial justice activists. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 42(5), 667–687. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2018.1439981.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hagerman, M. A. (2018). White kids: Growing up with racial privilege in a racially divided America. NYU Press.Google Scholar
Heberle, A. E., Rapa, L. J., & Farago, F. (2020). Critical consciousness in children and adolescents: A systematic review, critical assessment, and recommendations for future research. Psychological Bulletin, 146(6), 525–551. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000230.Google Scholar
Helms, J. E. (1994). The conceptualization of racial identity and other “racial” constructs. In Trickett, E. J, Watts, R. J, & Birman, D (Eds.), Human diversity: Perspectives on people in context (pp. 285–311). Jossey-Bass/Wiley.Google Scholar
Helms, J. E. (2005). An update on Helms’s White and People of Color racial identity models. In Ponterotto, J. G., Casas, J. M., Suzuki, L. A., and Alexander, C. M. (Eds.), Handbook of Multicultural Counseling (pp. 181–191). Sage.Google Scholar
Helms, J. E. (2014). A review of White racial identity theory: The sociopolitical implications of studying White racial identity in psychology. In Cooper, S. & Kopano, R. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 30th International Congress of Psychology. (Vol. 2, pp. 12–27). Taylor & Francis Group.Google Scholar
Hochman, A. (2019). Racialization: A defense of the concept. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 42(8), 1245–1262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hope, E. C., Anyiwo, N., Palmer, G. J. M., Bañales, J., & Smith, C. (in press). Sociopolitical development theory: A history and overview of a Black liberatory approach to youth development. American Psychologist.Google Scholar
Hope, E. C., & Bañales, J. (2019). Black early adolescent critical reflection of inequitable sociopolitical conditions: A qualitative investigation. Journal of Adolescent Research, 34(2), 167–200. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558418756360.Google Scholar
Hope, E. C., Gugwor, R., Riddick, K. N., & Pender, K. N. (2019). Engaged against the machine: Institutional and cultural racial discrimination and racial identity as predictors of activism orientation among Black youth. American Journal of Community Psychology, 63(1–2), 61–72. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hope, E. C., Pender, K. N., & Riddick, K. N. (2019). Development and validation of the Black Community Activism Orientation Scale. Journal of Black Psychology, 45(3), 185–214. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798419865416.Google Scholar
Hope, E. C., Skoog, A. B., & Jagers, R. J. (2015). “It’ll never be the white kids, it’ll always be us”: Black high school students’ evolving critical analysis of racial discrimination and inequity in schools. Journal of Adolescent Research, 30(1), 83–112. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558414550688.Google Scholar
Hope, E. C., Smith, C. D., Cryer-Coupet, Q. R., & Briggs, A. S. (2020). Relations between racial stress and critical consciousness for Black adolescents. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 70, 101184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2020.101184.Google Scholar
Hughes, D., Rodriguez, J., Smith, E. P. et al. (2006). Parents’ ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future study. Developmental Psychology, 42(5), 747–770. https://doi.org/bdqxq6.Google Scholar
Husband, T., & Bertrand, S. (2021). The inequitable consequences of school disciplinary policies on Black girls in Ohio. Journal of Global Education and Research, 5(2), 175–184. https://doi.org/10.5038/2577-509x.5.2.1075.Google Scholar
Jones, J. M. (1997). Prejudice and racism (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill Companies.Google Scholar
Jost, J. T. (2019). A quarter century of system justification theory: Questions, answers, criticisms, and societal applications. British Journal of Social Psychology, 58(2), 263–314. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jost, J. T, Banaji, M. R, & Nosek, B. A. (2004). A decade of system justification theory: Accumulated evidence of conscious and unconscious bolstering of the status quo. Political Psychology, 25(6), 881–920. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/6ue35.Google Scholar
Jost, J. T. & Hunyady, O. (2005). Antecedents and consequences of system-justifying ideologies. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(5), 260–265.Google Scholar
Kendi, I. X. (2019). How to be an antiracist. One World.Google Scholar
Li, Y., & Nicholson Jr., H. L. (2021). When “model minorities” become “yellow peril”: Othering and the racialization of Asian Americans in the COVID‐19 pandemic. Sociology Compass, 15(2), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12849.Google Scholar
Losen, D., Hodson, C., Keith II, M. A., Morrison, J., & Belway, S. (2015). Are we closing the school discipline gap? The Center for Civil Rights remedies. https://escholarship.org/content/qt2t36g571/qt2t36g571.pdf.Google Scholar
Mathews, C. J., Bañales, J., Christophe, N. K., Briggs, A. S., & Hope, E. C. (in press). Action, but make it critical. The content and developmental processes of critical action among youth of color. In G. L. & Witherspoon, D. (Eds.), Diversity and developmental science – bridging the gaps between research, practice, and policy. Springer.Google Scholar
Mathews, C. J., Medina, M., Bañales, J. et al. (2020). Mapping the intersections of adolescents’ ethnic-racial identity and critical consciousness. Adolescent Research Review, 5(4), 363–379. https:/doi.org/10.1007/s40894-019-00122-0.Google Scholar
McKown, C. (2004). Age and ethnic variation in children’s thinking about the nature of racism. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 25, 597–617. https:doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2004.08.001.Google Scholar
McWhirter, E. H., Gomez, D., & Rau, E. D. (2019). “Never give up. Fight for what you believe in”: Perceptions of how Latina/o adolescents can make a difference. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 25(3), 403–412. https://do.org/10.1037/cdp0000254.Google Scholar
McWhirter, E. H., & McWhirter, B. T. (2016). Critical consciousness and vocational development among Latina/o high school youth: Initial development and testing of a measure. Journal of Career Assessment, 24(3), 543–558. https://doi.org/f8xvkd.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, J., & Garran, A. M. (2007). The web of institutional racism. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 77(1), 33–67. https://doi.org/10.1300/J497v77n01_03.Google Scholar
Miller, J., & Garran, A. M. (2017). Racism in the United States: Implications for the helping professions. Springer Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Montoro, J. P., Kilday, J. E., Rivas-Drake, D., Ryan, A. M., & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2021). Coping with discrimination from peers and adults: Implications for adolescents’ school belonging. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 50(1), 126–143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01360-5.Google Scholar
Neblett, E. W., Jr. (2019). Racism and health: Challenges and future directions in behavioral and psychological research. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 25(1), 12–20. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000253.Google Scholar
Neville, H. A., Awad, G. H., Brooks, J. E., Flores, M. P., & Bluemel, J. (2013). Color-blind racial ideology theory, training, and measurement implications in psychology. American Psychologist, 68(6), 455–466. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neville, H. A., Poteat, V. P., Lewis, J. A., & Spanierman, L. B. (2014). Changes in white college students’ color-blind racial ideology over 4 years: Do diversity experiences make a difference? Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61(2), 179–190. https://doi.org10.1037/a0035168.Google Scholar
Norton, L., & Sliep, Y. (2018). A critical reflexive model: Working with life stories in health promotion education. South African Journal of Higher Education, 32(3), 45–63. https://doi.org/10.20853/32-3-2523.Google Scholar
O’Leary, A. O., & Romero, A. J. (2011). Chicana/o students respond to Arizona’s anti-ethnic studies bill, SB 1108: Civic engagement, ethnic identity, and well-being. Aztlan: A Journal of Chicano Studies, 36(1), 9–36.Google Scholar
Omi, M., & Winant, H. (2018). Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s (pp. 222–227). Routledge.Google Scholar
Paradies, Y., Ben, J., Denson, N. et al. (2015). Racism as a determinant of health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One, 10(9), e0138511. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138511.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quiñones-Rosado, R. (2020). Liberation psychology and racism. In Comas-Daz, L. & Rivera, E. T. (Eds.), Liberation psychology: Theory, method, practice, and social justice. (pp. 53–68). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000198-004.Google Scholar
Quintana, S. M. (1998). Children’s developmental understanding of ethnicity and race. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 7, 27–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0962-1849(98)80020-6.Google Scholar
Quintana, S. M. (2008). Racial perspective taking: Developmental, theoretical and empirical trends. In Quintana, S. M & McKown, C (Eds.), Handbook of race, racism, and the developing child (pp. 16–36). John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Raval, V. V., Ovia, T., Freeman, M., Raj, S. P., & Daga, S. S. (2021). Discourses about race in the United States: A thematic analysis of short essays. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 83(4), 98–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2021.05.004.Google Scholar
Rendón, M. G., Aldana, A., & Hom, L. D. (2020). Children of Latino immigrants framing race: Making sense of criminalisation in a colour-blind era. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 46(11), 2407–2425.Google Scholar
Richards-Schuster, K., & Aldana, A. (2013). Learning to speak out about racism: Youths’ insights on participation in an intergroup dialogues program. Social Work with Groups, 36(4), 332–348. https://doi.org/10.1080/01609513.2013.763327.Google Scholar
Rios, V. (2011). Punished: Policing the lives of Black and Latino boys. NYU Press.Google Scholar
Rivera, E. T. (2020). Concepts of liberation psychology. In Comas-Daz, L. & Rivera, E. T. (Eds.), Liberation psychology: Theory, method, practice, and social justice (pp. 41–51). American Psychology Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000198-003.Google Scholar
Rivas-Drake, D., & Umaña-Taylor, A. (2019). Below the surface: Talking with teens about race, ethnicity, and identity. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Roberts, R. A., Bell, L. A., & Murphy, B. (2008). Flipping the script: Analyzing youth talk about race and racism. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 39(3), 334–354. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-1492.2008.00025.x.Google Scholar
Rosa, J. (2018). Looking like a language, sounding like a race: Raciolinguistic ideologies and the learning of Latinidad. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rozas, L. W., & Miller, J. (2009). Discourses for social justice education: The web of racism and the web of resistance. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 18(1–2), 24–39. https://doi.org/10.1080/15313200902874953.Google Scholar
Sakamoto, I., & Pitner, R. O. (2005). Use of critical consciousness in anti-oppressive social work practice: Disentangling power dynamics at personal and structural levels. British Journal of Social Work, 35(4), 435–452. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bch190.Google Scholar
Sánchez Carmen, S. A., Domínguez, M., Greene, A. C. et al. (2015). Revisiting the collective in critical consciousness: Diverse sociopolitical wisdoms and ontological healing in sociopolitical development. Urban Review, 47(5), 824–846. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-015-0338-5.Google Scholar
Saul, R., & Burkholder, C. (2020). Intellectualizing whiteness as a response to campus racism: Some concerns. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 43(9), 1636–1653. https://doi.org/gng3.Google Scholar
Seaton, E. K., Gee, G. C., Neblett, E., & Spanierman, L. (2018). New directions for racial discrimination research as inspired by the integrative model. American Psychologist, 73(6), 768–780. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000315.Google Scholar
Seaton, E. K., & Iida, M. (2019). Racial discrimination and racial identity: Daily moderation among Black youth. American Psychologist, 74(1), 117–127. https://doi.org/gf9gqc.Google Scholar
Seider, S., Clark, S., Graves, D. et al. (2019). Black and Latinx adolescents’ developing beliefs about poverty and associations with their awareness of racism. Developmental Psychology, 55(3), 509.Google Scholar
Seider, S., Clark, S., & Graves, D. (2020). The development of critical consciousness and its relation to academic achievement in adolescents of color. Child Development, 91(2), e451–e457. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sellers, R. M., Smith, M. A., Shelton, J. N., Rowley, S. A., & Chavous, T. M. (1998). Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2(1), 18–39. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0201_2.Google Scholar
Selod, S. (2015). Citizenship denied: The racialization of Muslim American men and women post-9/11. Critical Sociology, 41(1), 77–95.Google Scholar
Sirin, S. R., Bikmen, N., Mir, M. et al. (2008). Exploring dual identification among Muslim-American emerging adults: A mixed methods study. Journal of Adolescence, 31(2), 259–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2007.10.009.Google Scholar
Smith, C. D., & Hope, E. C. (2020). “We just want to break the stereotype”: Tensions in Black boys’ critical social analysis of their suburban school experiences. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(3), 551–566. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000435.Google Scholar
Spencer, M. B., Dupree, D., & Hartmann, T. (1997). A Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST): A self-organization perspective in context. Development and Psychopathology, 9(4), 817–833. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579497001454.Google Scholar
Tatum, B. D. (2017). Why are all the Black kids sitting together in the cafeteria? And other conversations about race. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Thomas, A. J., & Blackmon, S. M. (2015). The influence of the Trayvon Martin shooting on racial socialization practices of African American parents. Journal of Black Psychology, 41(1), 75–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798414563610.Google Scholar
Toraif, N., Augsberger, A., Young, A. et al. (2021). How to be an anti-racist: Youth of color’s critical perspectives on antiracism in a youth participatory action research context. Journal of Adolescent Research, 35, 86–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211028224.Google Scholar
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Quintana, S. M., Lee, R. M. et al. (2014). Ethnic and racial identity during adolescence and into young adulthood: An integrated conceptualization. Child Development, 85(1), 21–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12196.Google Scholar
Utsey, S. O., & Ponterotto, J. G. (1996). Development and validation of the Index of Race-Related Stress (IRRS). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43(4), 490–501. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.43.4.490.Google Scholar
Watts, R. J., Diemer, M. A., & Voight, A. M. (2011). Critical consciousness: Current status and future directions. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2011(134), 43–57. https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.310.Google Scholar
Watts, R. J., Griffith, D. M., & Abdul-Adil, J. (1999). Sociopolitical development as an antidote for oppression: Theory and action. American Journal of Community Psychology, 27, 255–271. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022839818873.Google Scholar
Watts, R. J., & Flanagan, C. (2007). Pushing the envelope on youth civic engagement: A developmental and liberation psychology perspective. Journal of Community Psychology, 35(6), 779–792.Google Scholar
Watts, R. J., & Guessous, O. (2006). Sociopolitical development: The Missing link in research and policy on adolescents. In Ginwright, S., Noguera, P., & Cammarota, J. (Eds.), Beyond resistance! Youth resistance and community change: New democratic possibilities for practice and policy for America’s youth (pp. 59–80). Routledge.Google Scholar
Watts, R. J., & Hipolito-Delgado, C. P. (2015). Thinking ourselves to liberation? Advancing sociopolitical action in critical consciousness. Urban Review, 47(5), 847–867. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-015-0341-x.Google Scholar
Watts, R. J., Williams, N. C., & Jagers, R. J. (2003). Sociopolitical development. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31, 185–194. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1023091024140.Google Scholar
Williams, C. D., Byrd, C. M., Quintana, S. M. et al. (2020). A lifespan model of ethnic-racial identity. Research in Human Development, 17(2–3), 99–129. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2020.1831882.Google Scholar
Wray-Lake, L., Plummer, J. A., & Alvis, L. (2023). Adolescents’ developmental pathways to critical consciousness in the contexts of racial oppression and privilege. In Rapa, L. J. and Godfrey, E. B. (Eds.), Critical consciousness: Expanding theory and measurement. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wray-Lake, L., Wells, R., Alvis, L. et al. (2018). Being a Latinx adolescent under a Trump presidency: Analysis of Latinx youth’s reactions to immigration politics. Children and Youth Services Review, 87, 192–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.02.032.Google Scholar
Yi, J., Todd, N. R., & Mekawi, Y. (2020). Racial colorblindness and confidence in and likelihood of action to address prejudice. American Journal of Community Psychology, 65(3–4), 407–422. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12409.Google Scholar
Young, A. A. (2006). The minds of marginalized Black men. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Zinn, H. (2015). A people’s history of the United States: 1492–present. Routledge.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×