Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-p9bg8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-31T20:15:12.840Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

5 - Magnetic Fields in Galaxies

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 April 2018

By
Rainer Beck
Edited by
Jorge Sánchez Almeida  and
María Jesús Martínez González
Rainer Beck
Affiliation:
Max Planck Institut für Radioastronomie, Germany
Jorge Sánchez Almeida
Affiliation:
Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, Tenerife
María Jesús Martínez González
Affiliation:
Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, Tenerife
Get access

Summary

Introduction

Magnetism is a fundamental force with special properties.

  • • Most baryonic matter is ionized. Magnetic fields are easy to generate.

  • • Magnetic monopoles do not exist or are extremely rare. Magnetic fields are hard to destroy.

  • • Magnetic fields need illumination. Magnetic fields are difficult to observe.

    • The scarceness of data leaves many questions on cosmic magnetic fields.

  • • When and how were the first fields generated?

  • • Did significant fields exist before galaxies formed?

  • • How and how fast were the fields amplified?

  • • How did fields affect the evolution of stars, planets, galaxies and galaxy clusters?

  • • How strongly is intergalactic space magnetized?

    • Magnetic fields are often ignored in astrophysics, in particular in models of galaxies and the interstellar medium (ISM), although they are a major agent in the ISM and in galaxy halos, and important for the structure and evolution of galaxies.

  • • Magnetic fields contribute significantly to the total pressure which balances the gas disk of galaxies against gravitation (Fletcher & Shukurov, 2001).

  • • Magnetic turbulence distributes energy from supernova explosions within the ISM (Subramanian, 1998).

  • • Magnetic reconnection is a possible heating source for the ISM and halo gas (Birk et al., 1998).

  • • Magnetic fields increase angular momentum transport and hence the gas inflow rate in barred galaxies (Beck et al., 2005; Kim & Stone, 2012).

  • • Magnetic fields affect the dynamics of the turbulent ISM (de Avillez & Breitschwerdt, 2005) and the gas flows in spiral arms (Gómez & Cox, 2002).

  • • Magnetic fields make the gaseous spiral arms more patchy and drive gas outflows into the halo (Pakmor & Springel, 2013).

  • • The shock strength in spiral density waves is decreased and structure formation is reduced in the presence of strong fields (Dobbs & Price, 2008; Fletcher et al., 2011).

  • • Magnetic fields stabilize gas clouds and reduce the star-formation efficiency to the observed low values (Vázquez-Semadeni et al., 2005; Price & Bate, 2008).

  • • Magnetic fields are essential for the onset of star formation as they enable the removal of angular momentum from the protostellar cloud via ambipolar diffusion (Heitsch et al., 2004).

    • Type
    Chapter
    Information
    Cosmic Magnetic Fields
    , pp. 123 - 160
    Publisher: Cambridge University Press
    Print publication year: 2018

    Access options

    Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

    References

    Abreu, P., Aglietta, M., Ahn, E. J., et al. 2010, Astropart. Phys., 34, 314CrossRef
    Ackermann, M., Ajello, M., Atwood, W. B., et al. 2012, ApJ, 750, 3CrossRef
    Adebahr, B., Krause, M., Klein, U., et al. 2013, A&A, 555, A23
    Arbutina, B., Urošević, D., Andjelić, M. M., Pavlović, M. Z., & Vukotić, B. 2012, ApJ, 746, 79CrossRef
    Arshakian, T. G. & Beck, R. 2011, MNRAS, 418, 2336CrossRef
    Arshakian, T. G., Beck, R., Krause, M., & Sokoloff, D. 2009, A&A, 494, 21
    Balbus, S. A. & Hawley, J. F. 1998, Rev. Mod. Phys., 70, 1CrossRef
    Balbus, S. A. & Reynolds, C. S. 2008, ApJL, 681, L65CrossRef
    Basu, A. & Roy, S. 2013, MNRAS, 433, 1675CrossRef
    Basu, A., Roy, S., & Mitra, D. 2012, ApJ, 756, 141CrossRef
    Beck, A. M., Lesch, H., Dolag, K., et al. 2012a, MNRAS, 422, 2152CrossRef
    Beck, R. 2007, A&A, 470, 539
    Beck, R. 2015, A&A, 578, A93
    Beck, R., Anderson, J., Heald, G., et al. 2013, Astronomische Nachrichten, 334, 548CrossRef
    Beck, R., Bomans, D., Colafrancesco, S., et al. 2015, Advancing Astrophysics with the Square Kilometre Array (AASKA14), 94
    Beck, R., Brandenburg, A., Moss, D., Shukurov, A., & Sokoloff, D. 1996, ARA&A, 34, 155
    Beck, R., Fletcher, A., Shukurov, A., et al. 2005, A&A, 444, 739
    Beck, R., Frick, P., Stepanov, R., & Sokoloff, D. 2012b, A&A, 543, A113
    Beck, R. & Gaensler, B. M. 2004, NewAR, 48, 1289CrossRef
    Beck, R. & Krause, M. 2005, Astronomische Nachrichten, 326, 414
    Beck, R., Shukurov, A., Sokoloff, D., & Wielebinski, R. 2003, A&A, 411, 99
    Beck, R. & Wielebinski, R. 2013, in Planets, Stars and Stellar Systems. Volume 5: Galactic Structure and Stellar Populations, ed. T. D., Oswalt & G., Gilmore (New York: Springer), 641Google Scholar
    Bell, A. R. 1978, MNRAS, 182, 443
    Bell, E. F. 2003, ApJ, 586, 794CrossRef
    Bell, M. R., Junklewitz, H., & Enslin, T. A. 2011, A&A, 535, A85
    Berkhuijsen, E. M., Beck, R., & Hoernes, P. 2003, A&A, 398, 937
    Berkhuijsen, E. M., Beck, R., & Tabatabaei, F. S. 2013, MNRAS, 435, 1598CrossRef
    Bernet, M. L., Miniati, F., Lilly, S. J., Kronberg, P. P., & Dessauges-Zavadsky, M. 2008, Nat., 454, 302CrossRef
    Bernet, M. L., Miniati, F., & Lilly, S. J. 2012, ApJ, 761, 144CrossRef
    Bernet, M. L., Miniati, F., & Lilly, S. J. 2013, ApJL, 772, L28CrossRef
    Beuermann, K., Kanbach, G., & Berkhuijsen, E. M. 1985, A&A, 153, 17
    Birk, G. T., Lesch, H., & Neukirch, T. 1998, MNRAS, 296, 165
    Brandenburg, A. & Stepanov, R. 2014, ApJ, 786, 91CrossRef
    Braun, R., Heald, G., & Beck, R. 2010, A&A, 514, A42
    Brentjens, M. A. & de Bruyn, A. G. 2005, A&A, 441, 1217
    Broderick, A. E., Chang, P., & Pfrommer, C. 2012, ApJ, 752, 22CrossRef
    Burlaga, L. F., Ness, N. F., Gurnett, D. A., & Kurth, W. S. 2013, ApJL, 778, L3CrossRef
    Burn, B. J. 1966, MNRAS, 133, 67CrossRef
    Caprini, C., Durrer, R., & Fenu, E. 2009, J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys., 11, 1
    Chamandy, L., Shukurov, A., & Subramanian, K. 2015, MNRAS, 446, L6CrossRef
    Chandrasekhar, S. & Fermi, E. 1953, ApJ, 118, 113
    Cho, J. & Lazarian, A. 2005, ApJ, 631, 361CrossRef
    Chyży, K. T. 2008, A&A, 482, 755
    Chyży, K. T. & Beck, R. 2004, A&A, 417, 541
    Chyży, K. T. & Buta, R. J. 2008, ApJL, 677, L17CrossRef
    Chyży, K. T., Beck, R., Kohle, S., Klein, U., & Urbanik, M. 2000, A&A, 355, 128
    Chyży, K. T., Weżgowiec, M., Beck, R., & Bomans, D. J. 2011, A&A, 529, A94
    Colafrancesco, S., Profumo, S., & Ullio, P. 2007, Phys. Rev. D, 75, 023513CrossRef
    Crocker, R. M., Jones, D. I., Melia, F., Ott, J., & Protheroe, R. J. 2010, Nat., 463, 65CrossRef
    Crutcher, R. M., Wandelt, B., Heiles, C., Falgarone, E., & Troland, T. H. 2010, ApJ, 725, 466CrossRef
    Damas-Segovia, A., Beck, R., Vollmer, B., et al. 2016, ApJ, 824, 30CrossRef
    de Avillez, M. A. & Breitschwerdt, D. 2005, A&A, 436, 585
    Dobbs, C. L. & Price, D. J. 2008, MNRAS, 383, 497
    Dolag, K., Kachelriess, M., Ostapchenko, S., & Tomàs, R. 2011, ApJL, 727, L4CrossRef
    Dumas, G., Schinnerer, E., Tabatabaei, F. S., et al. 2011, AJ, 141, 41CrossRef
    Dumke, M., Krause, M., Wielebinski, R., & Klein, U. 1995, A&A, 302, 691
    Ehle, M. & Beck, R. 1993, A&A, 273, 45
    Ellis, R. S. & Axon, D. J. 1978, Astrophys. Space Sci., 54, 425CrossRef
    Fendt, C., Beck, R., & Neininger, N. 1998, A&A, 335, 123
    Ferrière, K. 1996, A&A, 310, 438
    Ferrière, K. 2009, A&A, 505, 1183
    Ferrière, K. & Terral, P. 2014, A&A, 561, A100
    Fletcher, A. 2010, in Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, Vol. 438, ed. R., Kothes, T. L., Landecker, & A. G., Willis, 197Google Scholar
    Fletcher, A. & Shukurov, A. 2001, MNRAS, 325, 312CrossRef
    Fletcher, A., Berkhuijsen, E. M., Beck, R., & Shukurov, A. 2004, A&A, 414, 53
    Fletcher, A., Beck, R., Shukurov, A., Berkhuijsen, E. M., & Horellou, C. 2011, MNRAS, 412, 2396CrossRef
    Fosalba, P., Lazarian, A., Prunet, S., & Tauber, J. A. 2002, ApJ, 564, 762CrossRef
    Frick, P., Sokoloff, D., Stepanov, R., & Beck, R. 2011, MNRAS, 414, 2540CrossRef
    Frick, P., Stepanov, R., Beck, R., et al. 2016, A&A, 585, A21
    Frisch, P. C., Andersson, B.-G., Berdyugin, A., et al. 2012, ApJ, 760, 106CrossRef
    Gaensler, B. M., Haverkorn, M., Staveley-Smith, L., et al. 2005, Science, 307, 1610CrossRef
    Gent, F. A., Shukurov, A., Sarson, G. R., Fletcher, A., & Mantere, M. J. 2013, MNRAS, 430, L40CrossRef
    Giesübel, R. 2012, PhD dissertation, Universität zu Köln, Cuvillier Verlag Göttingen, ISBN 978-3-95404-308-8
    Giesübel, R., Heald, G., Beck, R., & Arshakian, T. G. 2013, A&A, 559, A27
    Gissinger, C., Fromang, S., & Dormy, E. 2009, MNRAS, 394, L84CrossRef
    Goldreich, P. & Kylafis, N. D. 1981, ApJL, 243, L75CrossRef
    Golla, G. & Hummel, E. 1994, A&A, 284, 777
    Gómez, G. C. & Cox, D. P. 2002, ApJ, 580, 235CrossRef
    Gräve, R. & Beck, R. 1988, A&A, 192, 66
    Greaves, J. S., Holland, W. S., Jenness, T., & Hawarden, T. G. 2000, Nat., 404, 732CrossRef
    Gressel, O., Elstner, D., Ziegler, U., & Rüdiger, G. 2008, A&A, 486, L35
    Han, J. L., Ferriere, K., & Manchester, R. N. 2004, ApJ, 610, 820CrossRef
    Han, J. L., Manchester, R. N., Lyne, A. G., Qiao, G. J., & van Straten, W. 2006, ApJ, 642, 868CrossRef
    Hanasz, M., Otmianowska-Mazur, K., & Lesch, H. 2002, A&A, 386, 347
    Hanasz, M., Wóltański, D., & Kowalik, K. 2009, ApJL, 706, L155CrossRef
    Hanayama, H., Takahashi, K., Kotake, K., et al. 2005, ApJ, 633, 941CrossRef
    Haverkorn, M., Gaensler, B. M., Brown, J. C., et al. 2006, ApJL, 637, L33CrossRef
    Heald, G. 2009, in IAU Symposium, Vol. 259, 591–602
    Heald, G. H. 2012, ApJL, 754, L35CrossRef
    Heesen, V., Beck, R., Krause, M., & Dettmar, R.-J. 2009a, A&A, 494, 563
    Heesen, V., Krause, M., Beck, R., & Dettmar, R.-J. 2009b, A&A, 506, 1123
    Heesen, V., Beck, R., Krause, M., & Dettmar, R.-J. 2011a, A&A, 535, A79
    Heesen, V., Rau, U., Rupen, M. P., Brinks, E., & Hunter, D. A. 2011b, ApJL, 739, L23CrossRef
    Heesen, V., Brinks, E., Leroy, A. K., et al. 2014, AJ, 147, 103CrossRef
    Heiles, C. & Crutcher, R. 2005, in Lecture Notes in Physics, Berlin Springer Verlag, Vol. 664, Cosmic Magnetic Fields, ed. R., Wielebinski & R., Beck, 137Google Scholar
    Heitsch, F., Zweibel, E. G., Slyz, A. D., & Devriendt, J. E. G. 2004, ApJ, 603, 165CrossRef
    Helfer, T. T., Thornley, M. D., Regan, M. W., et al. 2003, Astrophys. J. Suppl., 145, 259CrossRef
    Hildebrand, R. H., Kirby, L., Dotson, J. L., Houde, M., & Vaillancourt, J. E. 2009, ApJ, 696, 567CrossRef
    Hoang, T. & Lazarian, A. 2008, MNRAS, 388, 117CrossRef
    Horellou, C. & Fletcher, A. 2014, MNRAS, 441, 2049CrossRef
    Houde, M., Vaillancourt, J. E., Hildebrand, R. H., Chitsazzadeh, S., & Kirby, L. 2009, ApJ, 706, 1504CrossRef
    Houde, M., Rao, R., Vaillancourt, J. E., & Hildebrand, R. H. 2011, ApJ, 733, 109CrossRef
    Houde, M., Fletcher, A., Beck, R., et al. 2013, ApJ, 766, 49CrossRef
    Hughes, A., Wong, T., Ekers, R., et al. 2006, MNRAS, 370, 363CrossRef
    Ideguchi, S., Tashiro, Y., Akahori, T., et al. 2017, ApJ, 843, 146CrossRef
    Ja_locha, J., Bratek, L., Pekala, J., & Kutschera, M. 2012, MNRAS, 421, 2155
    Jansson, R. & Farrar, G. R. 2012a, ApJ, 757, 14CrossRef
    Jansson, R. & Farrar, G. R. 2012b, ApJL, 761, L11CrossRef
    Johnston-Hollitt, M., Govoni, F., Beck, R., et al. 2015, Advancing Astrophysics with the Square Kilometre Array (AASKA14), 92
    Kepley, A. A., Mühle, S., Everett, J., et al. 2010, ApJ, 712, 536CrossRef
    Kim, W.-T. & Stone, J. M. 2012, ApJ, 751, 124
    Klein, U., Weiland, H., & Brinks, E. 1991, A&A, 246, 323
    Knapik, J., Soida, M., Dettmar, R.-J., Beck, R., & Urbanik, M. 2000, A&A, 362, 910
    Kotarba, H., Lesch, H., Dolag, K., et al. 2009, MNRAS, 397, 733CrossRef
    Kotarba, H., Karl, S. J., Naab, T., et al. 2010, ApJ, 716, 1438CrossRef
    Krause, F. & Beck, R. 1998, A&A, 335, 789
    Krause, M. 1990, in IAU Symposium, Vol. 140, Galactic and Intergalactic Magnetic Fields,ed. R., Beck, R., Wielebinski, & P. P., Kronberg, 187Google Scholar
    Krause, M. 1993, in IAU Symposium, Vol. 157, The Cosmic Dynamo, ed. F., Krause, K. H., Rädler, & G., Rüdiger, 305CrossRefGoogle Scholar
    Krause, M. 2009, in Revista Mexicana de Astronomia y Astrofisica Conference Series, Vol. 36, 25
    Krause, M. 2014, ArXiv e-prints
    Krause, M., Beck, R., & Hummel, E. 1989a, A&A, 217, 17
    Krause, M., Hummel, E., & Beck, R. 1989b, A&A, 217, 4
    Krause, M., Wielebinski, R., & Dumke, M. 2006, A&A, 448, 133
    Kronberg, P. P., Lesch, H., & Hopp, U. 1999, ApJ, 511, 56CrossRef
    Kronberg, P. P., Perry, J. J., & Zukowski, E. L. H. 1992, ApJ, 387, 528CrossRef
    Kulpa-Dybel, K., Otmianowska-Mazur, K., Kulesza-Zydzik, B., et al. 2011, ApJL, 733, L18CrossRef
    Lacki, B. C. & Beck, R. 2013, MNRAS, 430, 3171CrossRef
    Lacki, B. C., Thompson, T. A., & Quataert, E. 2010, ApJ, 717, 1
    Laine, S. & Beck, R. 2008, ApJ, 673, 128CrossRef
    Lazar, M., Schlickeiser, R., Wielebinski, R., & Poedts, S. 2009, ApJ, 693, 1133CrossRef
    Li, H.-B. & Henning, T. 2011, Nat., 479, 499CrossRef
    Mao, S. A., Gaensler, B. M., Haverkorn, M., et al. 2010, ApJ, 714, 1170CrossRef
    Mao, S. A., McClure-Griffiths, N. M., Gaensler, B. M., et al. 2012, ApJ, 759, 25CrossRef
    Mao, S. A., Zweibel, E., Fletcher, A., et al. 2015, ApJ, 800, 92CrossRef
    Mao, S. A., Carilli, C., Gaensler, B. M., et al. 2017, Nature Astronomy, 1, 621CrossRef
    Men, H., Ferrière, K., & Han, J. L. 2008, A&A, 486, 819
    Mestel, L. 1990, in IAU Symposium, Vol. 140, Galactic and Intergalactic Magnetic Fields, ed. R., Beck, R., Wielebinski, & P. P., Kronberg, 259Google Scholar
    Mora, S. C. & Krause, M. 2013, A&A, 560, A42
    Moss, D., Sokoloff, D., Beck, R., & Krause, M. 2010, A&A, 512, A61
    Moss, D., Stepanov, R., Arshakian, T. G., et al. 2012, A&A, 537, A68
    Moss, D., Stepanov, R., Krause, M., Beck, R., & Sokoloff, D. 2015, A&A, 578, A94
    Mulcahy, D. D., Horneffer, A., Beck, R., et al. 2014, A&A, 568, A74
    Murphy, E. J. 2009, ApJ, 706, 482CrossRef
    Nota, T. & Katgert, P. 2010, A&A, 513, A65
    Noutsos, A. 2009, in IAU Symposium, Vol. 259, ed. K. G., Strassmeier, A. G., Kosovichev, & J. E., Beckman, 15Google Scholar
    Noutsos, A. 2012, Space Sci. Rev., 166, 307CrossRef
    Nyland, K., Young, L. M., Wrobel, J. M., et al. 2017, MNRAS, 464, 1029CrossRef
    Ohno, H. & Shibata, S. 1993, MNRAS, 262, 953CrossRef
    Opher, M., Bibi, F. A., Toth, G., et al. 2009, Nat., 462, 1036CrossRef
    Oppermann, N., Junklewitz, H., Robbers, G., et al. 2012, A&A, 542, A93
    Orlando, E. & Strong, A. 2013, MNRAS, 436, 2127CrossRef
    Pakmor, R. & Springel, V. 2013, MNRAS, 432, 176CrossRef
    Parrish, I. J. & Quataert, E. 2008, ApJL, 677, L9CrossRef
    Patrikeev, I., Fletcher, A., Stepanov, R., et al. 2006, A&A, 458, 441
    Price, D. J. & Bate, M. R. 2008, MNRAS, 385, 1820CrossRef
    Rand, R. J. & Kulkarni, S. R. 1989, ApJ, 343, 760CrossRef
    Rees, M. J. 2005, in Lecture Notes in Physics, Berlin Springer Verlag, Vol. 664, Cosmic Magnetic Fields, ed. R., Wielebinski & R., Beck, 1Google Scholar
    Reuter, H.-P., Klein, U., Lesch, H., Wielebinski, R., & Kronberg, P. P. 1994, A&A, 282, 724
    Robishaw, T., Quataert, E., & Heiles, C. 2008, ApJ, 680, 981CrossRef
    Rodrigues, L. F. S., Shukurov, A., Fletcher, A., & Baugh, C. M. 2015, MNRAS, 450, 3472CrossRef
    Rohde, R., Beck, R., & Elstner, D. 1999, A&A, 350, 423
    Ruiz-Granados, B., Rubino-Martín, J. A., Florido, E., & Battaner, E. 2010, ApJL, 723, L44CrossRef
    Scarrott, S. M., Ward-Thompson, D., & Warren-Smith, R. F. 1987, MNRAS, 224, 299CrossRef
    Schleicher, D. R. G. & Beck, R. 2013, A&A, 556, A142
    Schleicher, D. R. G. & Beck, R. 2016, A&A, 593, A77
    Schleicher, D. R. G., Banerjee, R., Sur, S., et al. 2010, A&A, 522, A115
    Schlickeiser, R. 2012, Phys. Rev. Lett., 109, 261101CrossRef
    Schlickeiser, R. & Felten, T. 2013, ApJ, 778, 39CrossRef
    Sellwood, J. A. & Balbus, S. A. 1999, ApJ, 511, 660CrossRef
    Seymour, N., Dwelly, T., Moss, D., et al. 2008, MNRAS, 386, 1695CrossRef
    Shukurov, A. & Berkhuijsen, E. M. 2003, MNRAS, 342, 496CrossRef
    Shukurov, A., Sokoloff, D., Subramanian, K., & Brandenburg, A. 2006, A&A, 448, L33
    Siejkowski, H., Otmianowska-Mazur, K., Soida, M., Bomans, D. J., & Hanasz, M. 2014, A&A, 562, A136
    Soida, M., Beck, R., Urbanik, M., & Braine, J. 2002, A&A, 394, 47
    Soida, M., Krause, M., Dettmar, R.-J., & Urbanik, M. 2011, A&A, 531, A127
    Sokoloff, D., Shukurov, A., & Krause, M. 1992, A&A, 264, 396
    Sokoloff, D. D., Bykov, A. A., Shukurov, A., et al. 1998, MNRAS, 299, 189CrossRef
    Stepanov, R., Arshakian, T. G., Beck, R., Frick, P., & Krause, M. 2008, A&A, 480, 45
    Stepanov, R., Shukurov, A., Fletcher, A., et al. 2014, MNRAS, 437, 2201CrossRef
    Stil, J. M., Krause, M., Beck, R., & Taylor, A. R. 2009, ApJ, 693, 1392CrossRef
    Strong, A. W., Moskalenko, I. V., & Reimer, O. 2000, ApJ, 537, 763CrossRef
    Subramanian, K. 1998, MNRAS, 294, 718CrossRef
    Sun, X.-H. & Reich, W. 2010, Res. Astron. Astrophys., 10, 1287CrossRef
    Sun, X. H., Reich, W., Waelkens, A., & Enslin, T. A. 2008, A&A, 477, 573
    Tabatabaei, F. S., Beck, R., Krügel, E., et al. 2007, A&A, 475, 133
    Tabatabaei, F. S., Krause, M., Fletcher, A., & Beck, R. 2008, A&A, 490, 1005
    Tabatabaei, F. S., Berkhuijsen, E. M., Frick, P., Beck, R., & Schinnerer, E. 2013a, A&A, 557, A129
    Tabatabaei, F. S., Schinnerer, E., Murphy, E. J., et al. 2013b, A&A, 552, A19
    Tang, Y.-W., Ho, P. T. P., Koch, P. M., et al. 2009, ApJ, 700, 251CrossRef
    Taylor, A. R., Stil, J. M., & Sunstrum, C. 2009, ApJ, 702, 1230CrossRef
    Thompson, T. A., Quataert, E., Waxman, E., Murray, N., & Martin, C. L. 2006, ApJ, 645, 186CrossRef
    Tingay, S. J., Kaplan, D. L., McKinley, B., et al. 2013, AJ, 146, 103CrossRef
    Tüllmann, R., Dettmar, R.-J., Soida, M., Urbanik, M., & Rossa, J. 2000, A&A, 364, L36
    Urbanik, M., Elstner, D., & Beck, R. 1997, A&A, 326, 465
    Van Eck, C. L., Brown, J. C., Stil, J. M., et al. 2011, ApJ, 728, 97CrossRef
    van Haarlem, M. P., Wise, M. W., Gunst, A. W., et al. 2013, A&A, 556, A2
    Vázquez-Semadeni, E., Kim, J., & Ballesteros-Paredes, J. 2005, ApJL, 630, L49CrossRef
    Vollmer, B., Soida, M., Beck, R., et al. 2007, A&A, 464, L37
    Vollmer, B., Soida, M., Beck, R., et al. 2013, A&A, 553, A116
    Wang, P. & Abel, T. 2009, ApJ, 696, 96
    Weżgowiec, M., Urbanik, M., Vollmer, B., et al. 2007, A&A, 471, 93
    Weżgowiec, M., Urbanik, M., Beck, R., Chyży, K. T., & Soida, M. 2012, A&A, 545, A69
    Widrow, L. M. 2002, Rev. Mod. Phys., 74, 775CrossRef
    Wolleben, M., Fletcher, A., Landecker, T. L., et al. 2010, ApJL, 724, L48CrossRef
    Yoast-Hull, T. M., Everett, J. E., Gallagher, J. S. III, & Zweibel, E. G. 2013, ApJ, 768, 53CrossRef

    Save book to Kindle

    To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

    Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

    Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

    Available formats
    ×

    Save book to Dropbox

    To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

    Available formats
    ×

    Save book to Google Drive

    To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

    Available formats
    ×