Introduction

Consistent relationships have been observed between the quality of parenting and the level of children's functioning. Positive parenting is related to fewer problematic behaviors and higher psychosocial development of children (Hoffman, 1983; Maccoby & Martin, 1983; Rohner, 1986; Steinberg, Elmen, & Mounts, 1989; Steinberg, Mounts, Lamborn, & Dornbusch, 1991), while parental rejection, harsh discipline, and lack of monitoring are related to increased child conduct problems (Loeber & Stouthamer-Loeber, 1986; MacEwen & Barling, 1991; Patterson, 1986; Patterson, Reid, & Dishion, 1992; Patterson & Stouthamer-Loeber, 1984; Rutter & Garmezy, 1983).

Most studies have assumed that children's behaviors are shaped by parents (Baldwin & Skinner, 1989; DiLalla, Mitchell, Arthur, & Pogliocca, 1988; Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, & Fraleigh, 1987; Hoffman, 1975; Johnson & Pandina, 1991; Miller, McCoy, Olson, & Wallace, 1986; Steinberg, Elmen, & Mounts, 1989; Steinberg et al., 1991). Bell (1968, 1977; Bell & Chapman, 1986) was one of the first developmental psychologists to challenge the traditional unidirectional model with evidence that children also influenced their parents' behavior toward them. He proposed that parents and children respond in terms of each person's tolerance of the other, setting up a system of reciprocal control. In particular, since children respond differently to different disciplinary techniques, parents try those techniques that seem to work best with their own child.

As is being increasingly recognized, the relationship between parent and child is dynamic, with each individual modifying the behavior of the other (Bell & Chapman, 1986; Lytton, 1990; Patterson, Reid, & Dishion, 1992).