Introduction: from chiefdoms to states

China is one of the most ancient civilizations/states in the world, and today few people question its independent development. However, there is little consensus among scholars concerning the dates, locations, and main actors involved in the formation of the earliest state in China. Regarding these issues, three different opinions have significantly affected archaeological approaches. The first opinion, held by some Chinese archaeologists and historians, is the most radical. It holds that early civilization emerged during the Longshan period or even earlier, as indicated in the use of written inscriptions, bronze metallurgy, the construction of city walls or large public structures, institutionalized ritual, human sacrifice, and marked social stratification in mortuary contexts (e.g., Li Xueqin 1997b: 20–38). Textual information has also been sought to support this opinion; the era of the legendary Five Emperors is frequently regarded by many archaeologists as related to the period of late Neolithic cultures (e.g., Cao 2001; Xu Shunzhan 1999). Recent excavations at several sites in central Henan, such as Wangchenggang and Xinzhai, and Taosi in Shanxi are aimed at searching for the earliest stage of social development of these legendary polities.