Al Shehri, T., Braun, J., Howarth, N., Lanza, A., and Luomi, M. (2022). Saudi Arabia’s climate change policy and the circular carbon economy approach. Clim. Policy 23 (2), pp. 151–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Blomsma, F., and Brennan, G. (2017). The emergence of the circular economy: a new framing around prolonging resource productivity. J. Ind. Ecol. 21 (3), pp. 603–614.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

C40 (2018). Municipality-Led Circular Economy Case Studies; In Partnership with the Climate-KIC Circular Cities Project.Google Scholar

Circular Community Foundation Website. Available online: https://circularcommunity.org/ (accessed 21 June 2022).Google Scholar

Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2013a). Towards the Circular Economy: Economic and Business Rationale for an Accelerated Transition. Cowes, UK. Available online: https://tinyurl.com/hzfrxvb (accessed 21 June 2022).Google Scholar

Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2013b). Towards the Circular Economy: Opportunities for the Consumer Goods Sector. Cowes, UK. Available online: https://tinyurl.com/ztnrg24 (accessed 21 June 2022).Google Scholar

Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2015a). Potential for Denmark as a Circular Economy A Case Study From: Delivering the Circular Economy – A Toolkit for Policy Makers. Cowes, UK. Available online: https://archive.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/assets/downloads/government/20151113_DenmarkCaseStudy.pdf (accessed 21 June 2022).Google Scholar

Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2015b). Towards a Circular Economy: Business Rationale for an Accelerated Transition. Cowes, UK. Available online: https://tinyurl.com/zt8fhxw (accessed 21 June 2022).Google Scholar

Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2021). Completing the Picture: How the Circular Economy Tackles Climate Change. Cowes, UK.Google Scholar

Energy & Climate Intelligence Unit (ECIU) Website. Available online: https://eciu.net/netzerotracker (accessed 21 June 2022).Google Scholar

European Commission (EC) (2015). Communication from the Commission to The Parliament, The Council, The European Economic and Social Committee of the Regions. Closing the Loop – An EU Action Plan for the Circular Economy (COM/2015/0614 Final). Available online: www.eea.europa.eu/policy-documents/com-2015-0614-final (accessed 21 June 2022).Google Scholar

European Urban Knowledge Network (EUKN) (2015). The Circular City. Lessons from Europe. Factsheet for Policy Lab Netherlands. The Hague: EUKN.Google Scholar

G20 (Group of Twenty) Saudi Arabia (2020). G20 Climate Stewardship Working Group. Managing Emission in the Context of the Circular Carbon Economy Platform. Presidency Report. September. Saudi Arabia.Google Scholar

Geissdoerfer, M., Savaget, P., Bocken, N. M. P., and Hultink, E. J. (2017). The circular economy: a new sustainability paradigm? J. Clean. Prod. 143, pp. 757–768.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ghisellini, P., Cialani, C., and Ulgiati, S. (2014). A review on circular economy: the expected transition to a balanced interplay of environmental and economic systems. J. Clean. Prod. 114, pp. 11–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gulseven, O., and Mostert, J. (2017). Application of circular economy for sustainable resource management in Kuwait. Int. J. Soc. Ecol. Sustain. Dev. 8 (3), Article 6, 13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

International Telecommunication Union (ITU-T) L.1620 Telecommunication Standardization Sector of ITU (08/2022). Recommendation ITU-T L.1620.Google Scholar

International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) (2018). Recommendation L.1020 Circular Economy: Guide for Operators and Suppliers on Approaches to Migrate towards Circular ICT Goods and Networks.Google Scholar

Lieder, M., and Rashid, A. (2015). Towards circular economy implementation: a comprehensive review in the context of manufacturing industry. J. Clean. Prod. 115, pp. 36–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

McKinsey & Company (2015). Europe’s Circular Economy Opportunity. Available online: www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/sustainability/our-insights/europes-circular-economy-opportunity (accessed 21 June 2022).Google Scholar

Mitchell, P. (2015). Employment and the Circular Economy – Job Creation through Resource Efficiency in London. Report produced by WRAP for the London Sustainable Development Commission, the London Waste and Recycling Board, and the Greater London Authority.Google Scholar

Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2016). Forum 2016 Issues: International Collaboration. Available online: www.oecd.org/forum/issues/forum-2016-issues-international-collaboration.htm (accessed 21 June 2022).Google Scholar

Preston, F. (2012). A Global Redesign? Shaping the Circular Economy, Briefing Paper, London: Chatham House.Google Scholar

Sauvé, S., Bernard, S., and Sloan, P. (2016). Environmental sciences, sustainable development and circular economy: alternative concepts for trans-disciplinary research. Environ. Dev. 17, pp. 48–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

The Circularity Gap Report (2023). An Initiative of Circle Economy. Available online: www.circle-economy.com (accessed 5 April 2023).Google Scholar

UK Government (2021). Net Zero Strategy: Build Back Greener. London: Department for Energy Security and Net Zero, UK Government.Google Scholar

United for Smart Sustainable Cities (U4SSC) (2020). A Guide to Circular Cities.Google Scholar

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2011). Fischer-Kowalski, M., Swilling, M., von Weizsäcker, E. U., Ren, Y., Moriguchi, Y., Crane, W., Krausmann, F., Eisenmenger, N., Giljum, S., Hennicke, P., Romero Lankao, P., and Siriban Manalang, A., Decoupling Natural Resource Use and Environmental Impacts from Economic Growth. A Report of the Working Group on Decoupling to the International Resource Panel. Nairobi: UNEP.Google Scholar

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (2021). Nationally Determined Contributions under the Paris Agreement. Revised Synthesis Report by the Secretariat. Bonn: UNFCCC.Google Scholar

United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDG11) Website. Available online: www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/cities (accessed 21 June 2022).Google Scholar

Williams, E. (2020). CCE Guide: Overview. A Guide to the Circular Carbon Economy (CCE). Riyadh: KAPSARC.Google Scholar

Williams, J. (2022). Circular cities: planning for circular development in European cities. Eur. Plan. Stud. 31 (1), pp. 14–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Yuan, Z., Bi, J., and Moriguichi, Y. (2008). The circular economy: a new development strategy in China. J. Ind. Ecol. 10 (1–2), pp. 4–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

International Energy Agency (IEA) (2021). Data and Statistics. Available online: www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-browser?country=WORLD&fuel=Energy%20consumption&indicator=ElecConsPerCapita (accessed 9 January 2022).Google Scholar

Luomi, M., Fatih, Y., and Alshehri, T. (2021a). How the Circular Carbon Economy Index Can Serve Policymaking: Case Study of Saudi Arabia. KAPSARC Commentary. October 2021. Available online: www.kapsarc.org/rewsearch/publications/how-the-circular-carbon-economy-index-can-serve-policymaking-case-study-of-saudi-arabia/ (accessed 9 January 2022).Google Scholar

Luomi, M., Fatih, Y., and Alshehri, T. (2021b). The Circular Carbon Economy Index 2021 – Results. KAPSARC Discussion Paper. No. ks-2021-dp021. Available online: www.kapsarc.org/research/publications/the-circular-carbon-economy-index-2021-results/ (accessed 9 January 2022).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Luomi, M., Fatih, Y., and Alshehri, T. (2021c). The Circular Carbon Economy Index 2021 – Methodology. KAPSARC Methodology Paper, No. ks--2021-mp02. Riyadh: KAPSARC. Available online: www.kapsarc.org/research/publications/the-circular-carbon-economy-index-2021-methodology/ (accessed 9 January 2022).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

McDonough, W. (2016). Carbon is not the enemy. Nature, 539 (17 November): pp. 349–351. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/539349a.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Petroleum Development Oman (PDO) (2021). Oman’s Hydrogen Alliance to Drive National Hydrogen Economy. 12 August. Available online: https://pdo.co.om/en/news/press-releases/Pages/Oman%E2%80%99s%20Hydrogen%20Alliance%20to%20Drive%20National%20Hydrogen%20Economy.aspx.Google Scholar

Williams, E. (2019). Achieving Climate Goals by Closing the Loop in a Circular Carbon Economy. KAPSARC Instant Insight, 9 November. Riyadh: KAPSARC. Available online: www.kapsarc.org/research/publications/achieving-climategoals-by-closing-the-loop-in-a-circular-carboneconomy/.Google Scholar

World Bank (2021a). Global Gas Flaring Data: Global Gas Flaring Reduction Partnership. Available online: www.worldbank.org/en/programs/gasflaringreduction/global-flaring-data (accessed 5 January 2022).Google Scholar

World Bank (2021b). Oil Rents (% of GDP). Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PETR.RT.ZS (accessed 9 January 2022).Google Scholar

World Resources Institute (WRI) et al. (2021). Global Historical Emissions. Available online: www.climatewatchdata.org/ghg-emissions?end_year=2018&regions=ARE%2COMN&start_year=1990 (accessed 5 January 2022).Google Scholar

Abu Omar, A. (2022). Saudi Arabia’s making $1 billion from oil exports every day. Bloomberg News.Google Scholar

Alshammari, H. (2021). Saudi Arabia aims to generate 50% of power from renewables by 2030. Arab News.Google Scholar

Arioli, M., Fulton, L., and Lah, O. (2020). Transportation strategies for a 1.5°C world: a comparison of four countries. Transp. Res. Part Transp. Environ. 87, 102526. Doi: 10.1016/j.trd.2020.102526.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

BP (2021). BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2021. Statistical Report. London: BP.Google Scholar

BP (2022). BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2022. Statistical Report. London: BP.Google Scholar

Brunner, S., Flachsland, C., and Marschinski, R. (2012). Credible commitment in carbon policy. Clim. Policy 12, pp. 255–271. Doi: 10.1080/14693062.2011.582327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cabral, A. (2022). UAE company opens new electric vehicle manufacturing plant in Dubai industrial city. The National News.Google Scholar

Carpenter, C. (2022). Saudi Arabia set to double renewables tenders as Middle East growth may pick up. S&P Global. Commodities. Insights.Google Scholar

Climate Accountability Institute (2020). Carbon Majors 2018 Data Set. Database. Snowmass, CO: Climate Accountability Institute.Google Scholar

Collins, L. (2022). Green hydrogen now cheaper than blue in Middle East, but still way more expensive in Europe. Recharge Magazine. Available online: www.rechargenews.com/energy-transition/green-hydrogen-now-cheaper-than-blue-in-middle-east-but-still-way-more-expensive-in-europe/2-1-1173423.Google Scholar

EDGAR – Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research (2022). CO₂ Emissions of All World Countries. European Commission, Brussels. Government-sponsored research.Google Scholar

Financial Times (2021). Saudi Arabia 2060 net zero target keeps crude in the picture. 23 October.Google Scholar

Forder, J. (2001). The theory of credibility and the reputation-bias of policy. Rev. Polit. Econ. 13, pp. 5–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fulton, L. M., Jaffe, A., and McDonald, Z. (2019). Internal combustion engine bans and global oil use. Academic paper. University of California-Davis, Davis, California.Google Scholar

Global Wind Energy Atlas (n.d.). Global Wind Energy Atlas: Saudi Arabia. Online database. Available online: https://globalwindatlas.info/en/area/Saudi%20Arabia.Google Scholar

GlobalPetrolPrices.com (2023). Global Gasoline, Diesel, and Electricity Prices. Internet database. GlobalPetrolPrices.com.Google Scholar

Government of Saudi Arabia (2021). Kingdom of Saudi Arabia – Updated First Nationally Determined Contribution. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Glasgow. UN climate pledge.Google Scholar

Greater Houston Partnership (2021). Greater Houston Partnership launches regional energy transition strategy. Greater Houston Partnership press release, June 29.Google Scholar

Hartley, P. R. (2018). The cost of displacing fossil fuels: some evidence from Texas. Energy 39 (2), pp. 233–258.Google Scholar

Holland, B. (2022). Path to net-zero: European, US oil and gas companies split on Scope 3 emissions. S&P Global Market Intelligence.Google Scholar

International Energy Agency (IEA) (2022). World Energy Outlook 2022. IEA, Paris. NGO report.Google Scholar

Kapur, S. (2021). The Energy Transition and Decarbonization in the Ethylene Industry. Petrochemical industry consultancy report. Houston, TX: Apex PetroConsultants.Google Scholar

Kennedy, R. (2021). ‘Dangerous and delusional’: critics denounce Saudi climate plan. Al Jazeera.Google Scholar

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (2018). Fiscal Balance Program: 2018 Update. Vision 2030. Riyadh. Government report.Google Scholar

Krane, J., (2019). Energy Kingdoms: Oil and Political Survival in the Persian Gulf, Center on Global Energy Policy Series. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar

Krane, J. (2020). Climate action versus inaction: balancing the costs for Gulf energy exporters. Br. J. Middle East. Stud. pp. 1–19.Google Scholar

Krane, J. (2021). Climate strategy for producer countries: the case of Saudi Arabia, in Luciani, G., and Moerenhout, T. (eds.), When Can Oil Economies Be Deemed Sustainable? Singapore: Springer Singapore, pp. 301–327. Doi: 10.1007/978-981-15-5728-6_12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Krane, J. (2022). Last man standing: Saudi Aramco and global climate action, in Thompson, M. C., and Quilliam, N. (eds.), Governance and Domestic Policymaking in Saudi Arabia: Transforming Society, Economics, Politics and Culture. London: I. B. Tauris, pp. 257–289.Google Scholar

Krane, J., and Idel, R. (2021). More transitions, less risk: how renewable energy reduces risks from mining, trade, and political dependence. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 82, p. 102311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Liu, H., Tellez, B. G., Atallah, T., and Barghouty, M. (2012). The role of CO₂ capture and storage in Saudi Arabia’s energy future. Int. J. Greenhouse Gas Control 11, pp. 163–171. Doi: 10.1016/j.ijggc.2012.08.008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

MacDonald, F. (2022). One of the world’s wealthiest oil exporters is becoming unlivable. Bloomberg News.Google Scholar

Maersk, (2022). A.P. Moller-Maersk engages in strategic partnerships across the globe to scale green methanol production by 2025. Press release, March 10. Available online: www.maersk.com/news/articles/2022/03/10/maersk-engages-in-strategic-partnerships-to-scale-green-methanol-production.Google Scholar

Martin, P., and Zhou, Y. (2022). No Pain, No Gain: The Economic Consequences of Accelerating the Energy Transition. Consultancy research report. London: Wood Mackenzie.Google Scholar

McKerracher, C. (2022). China’s electric trucks may well pull forward peak oil demand. Bloomberg News.Google Scholar

Middle East Economic Survey (MEES) (2021). Saudi Arabia sets out its stall for net-zero 2060. October 29. Available online: www.mees.com/2021/10/29/opec/saudi-arabia-sets-out-its-stall-for-net-zero-2060/a244b9e0-38b4-11ec-abd8-bbf38d0cbd31.Google Scholar

MEES (2022a). Petro Rabigh signs up to CCUS. April 8.Google Scholar

MEES (2022b). Saudi Arabia awards 1GW of solar projects. 65.Google Scholar

MEES (2022c). Saudi Arabia urges colorblind approach to hydrogen. December 13.Google Scholar

MEES (2022d). Saudi May 2022 Key Oil Data. 65.Google Scholar

Moch, J. M., Xue, W., and Holdren, J. P. (2022). Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage: Technologies and Costs in the U.S. Context. Policy brief. Boston, MA: Belfer Center, Harvard University.Google Scholar

Nereim, V. (2021). Saudi Arabia to start electric-vehicle push in capital Riyadh. Bloomberg News.Google Scholar

North, D. C., and Weingast, B. R. (1989). Constitutions and commitment: the evolution of institutions governing public choice in seventeenth-century England. J. Econ. Hist. 49, pp. 803–832.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Pitel, L., and Kıraç, N. (2022). Turkey’s new power plant exposes ‘huge contradictions’ of net zero pledge. Financial Times.Google Scholar

Rahman, F. (2022). Dubai’s Hassyan power plant to be fueled by natural gas to reduce emissions. The National News.Google Scholar

Rathi, A., and Martin, M. (2021). Aramco’s new disclosures still exclude vast majority of its emissions. Bloomberg, April 6. Available online: www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-04-06/aramco-s-new-disclosures-still-exclude-vast-majority-of-its-emissions.Google Scholar

Rathi, A. (2021). How Saudi Arabia is planning to reach net zero by 2060. Bloomberg News.Google Scholar

Reuters (2023). Saudi Arabia plans to use domestic uranium for nuclear fuel. Reuters.Google Scholar

Rice University Carbon Hub (n.d.). From Fuels to Feedstock. Houston, TX: Rice University.Google Scholar

Rowlett, J., and Gerken, T. (2021). COP26: document leak reveals nations lobbying to change key climate report. BBC News.Google Scholar

SABIC (2022). Creating the world’s largest carbon capture and utilization plant. SABIC press release. SABIC, Riyadh.Google Scholar

Said, S., and Faucon, B. (2021). Ahead of COP26, Saudi Arabia resists calls to cut oil investment. Wall Street Journal. October. Available online: www.wsj.com/articles/ahead-of-cop26-saudi-arabia-resists-calls-to-cut-oil-investment-11634911150.Google Scholar

Saudi Arabian Statistics Agency (2017). Household Energy Survey. Available online: www.stats.gov.sa/sites/default/files/household_energy_survey_2017en.pdf.Google Scholar

Saudi Aramco (2021). Aramco expands climate goals, stating ambition to reach operational net-zero emissions by 2050. Saudi Aramco press release. Saudi Aramco, Dhahran.Google Scholar

Saudi Aramco (2022). Saudi Aramco Sustainability Report 2021: Energy Security for a Sustainable World. Company report. Saudi Aramco, Dhahran.Google Scholar

Saudi Aramco (2023). Aramco announces record full-year 2022 results. Saudi Aramco press release. Saudi Aramco, Dhahran.Google Scholar

Sharma, A. (2022). PIF-backed EV maker Lucid to produce 150,000 cars a year at its Saudi factory. The National, May 18. Available online: www.thenationalnews.com/business/economy/2022/05/18/pif-backed-ev-maker-lucid-to-produce-150000-cars-a-year-at-its-saudi-factory/#:~:text=The%20plant%20will%20help%20the,to%20500%2C000%20EVs%20per%20year&text=Lucid%20Group%2C%20which%20is%20backed,of%20155%2C000%20units%20a%20year.Google Scholar

Soummane, S., and Ghersi, F. (2022). Projecting Saudi sectoral electricity demand in 2030 using a computable general equilibrium model. Energy Strategy Rev. 39, 100787. Doi: 10.1016/j.esr.2021.100787.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

The National (2022). Abu Dhabi’s Kizad signs lease with NWTN for electric vehicle assembly plant. Available online: www.thenationalnews.com/business/road-to-net-zero/2022/09/06/abu-dhabis-kizad-signs-lease-with-nwtn-for-electric-vehicle-assembly-plant/#:~:text=The%20facility%20will%20have%20an,capacity%20to%2050%2C000%20units%20annually.Google Scholar

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (2021). A European Union Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism: Implications for Developing Countries. NGO report. New York: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.Google Scholar

Vahrenkamp, V., Afif, A., Tasianas, A., and Hoteit, H. (2021). The geological potential of the Arabian Plate for CCS and CCUS – an overview. Proceedings of the 15th Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies Conference 15–18 March 2021, pp. 15–18. Doi: 10.2139/ssrn.3822139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Walt, V. (2022). Saudi energy minister says the country will pump more oil, despite net-zero goals. Time.Google Scholar

Wood Mackenzie (2022). National Oil Companies: Strategies for the Energy Transition. Consultancy research report. London: Wood Mackenzie.Google Scholar

World Bank (2022). Gulf Economic Update: Achieving Climate Change Pledges. NGO report. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar

World Nuclear Association (2022). Nuclear Power in Saudi Arabia. Industry association report. London: World Nuclear Association.Google Scholar

Wright, A. (2021). Challenges and opportunities for CCS in Saudi Arabia. Natural Gas World.Google Scholar