Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-t5tsf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-16T15:11:55.914Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

12 - Pharmacological treatment of psychosis and depression in neurological disease in older adults

from Part III - Specific treatments

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 May 2010

By
Mark Rapoport ,
Cara Brown  and
Craig Ritchie
Edited by
Peter Tyrer  and
Kenneth R. Silk
Mark Rapoport
Affiliation:
University of Toronto Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre Toronto ON Canada
Cara Brown
Affiliation:
University of Toronto Toronto ON Canada
Craig Ritchie
Affiliation:
Department of Mental Health Sciences Royal Free and University Medical School Hampstead Campus Hampstead London UK
Peter Tyrer
Affiliation:
Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London
Kenneth R. Silk
Affiliation:
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
Get access

Summary

Editors' note

Conventional diagnostic descriptions are not satisfactory for many late life disorders in which multiple pathology is common. This chapter examines two frequent clinical syndromes, psychotic and depressive disorders, in those who have significant neurological disorders; mainly dementia, parkinsonism, cerebrovascular disease and traumatic brain injury. It will be noted that the evidence base and recommendations for treatment are often very different in the presence of other pathologies, and that there are many important gaps in our knowledge. The reader will also be reminded that dosage of drugs is crucial in this population and often differs from the equivalent conditions in adult psychiatry.

Introduction

Many neurological diseases have an increased incidence in old age. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is present in 8% of the Canadian population over the age of 65 (Lindsay et al., 2004), and this prevalence will climb as the population ages in the decades to come, since the prevalence of AD doubles every 5 years up to the age of 85 (United States General Accounting Office, 1998). Stroke is a major leading cause of death and disability for older adults. The prevalence of Parkinson's disease (PD) and Parkinsonian symptoms increase dramatically with age (Bennett et al., 1996; Van Den Eeden et al., 2003). Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is generally more common in younger adults, in whom it is often associated with alcohol or substance misuse.

Type
Chapter
Information
Cambridge Textbook of Effective Treatments in Psychiatry , pp. 244 - 262
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aarsland, D., Larsen, J. P., Cummins, J. L. & Laake, K. (1999). Prevalence and clinical correlates of psychotic symptoms in Parkinson disease: a community-based study. Archives of Neurology, 56, 595–601.Google Scholar
Alessi, C. A. (1991). Managing the behavioral problems of dementia in the home. Clinical Geriatric Medicine, 7, 787–801.Google Scholar
Andersen, G., Vestergaard, K. & Riis, J. O. (1993). Citalopram for post-stroke pathological crying. Lancet, 342, 837–9.Google Scholar
Andersen, G., Vestergaard, K. & Lauritzen, L. (1994). Effective treatment of poststroke depression with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor citalopram. Stroke, 25, 1099–104.Google Scholar
Andersen, J., Aabro, E., Gulmann, N.et al. (1980). Antidepressive treatment in Parkinson's disease. A controlled trial of the effect of nortryptiline in patients with Parkinson's disease treated with L-dopa. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 62, 210–19.Google Scholar
Arciniegas, D. B., Harris, S. N. & Brousseau, K. M. (2003). Psychosis following traumatic brain injury. International Review of Psychiatry, 15, 328–40.Google Scholar
Arseven, A., Guralnik, J. M., O'Brien, E.et al. (2001). Peripheral arterial disease and depressed mood in older men and women. Vascular Medicine, 6, 229–34.Google Scholar
Ballard, C., Bannister, C., Solis, M.et al. (1996). The prevalence, associations and symptoms of depression amongst dementia sufferers. Journal of Affective Disorders, 22, 135–44.Google Scholar
Ballard, C., McKeith, I., O'Brien, J.et al. (2000). Neuropathological substrates of dementia and depression in vascular dementia, with a particular focus on cases with small infarct volumes. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 11, 59–65.Google Scholar
Ballard, C., Johnson, M., Piggot, M.et al. (2002). A positive association between 5HT re-uptake binding sites and depression in dementia with Lewy bodies. Journal of Affective Disorders, 69, 219–23.Google Scholar
Ballard, C. G., Thomas, A., Fossey, J.et al. (2004). A 3-month, randomized, placebo-controlled, neuroleptic discontinuation study in 100 people with dementia: the neuropsychiatric inventory median cutoff is a predictor of clinical outcome. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65, 114–19.Google Scholar
Bennett, D. A., Beckett, L. A., Murray, A. M.et al. (1996). Prevalence of parkinsonian signs and associated mortality in a community population of older people. New England Journal of Medicine, 334, 71–6.Google Scholar
Birks, J. S. & Harvey, R. (2003). Donepezil for dementia due to Alzheimer's disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 3, CD001190. Oxford: Update Software Ltd.
Birks, J., Evans, Grimley J., Iakovidou, V. & Tsolaki, M. (2000). Rivastigmine for Alzheimer's disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 4, CD001191. Oxford: Update Software Ltd.
Borson, S. & Raskind, M. A. (1997). Clinical features and pharmacologic treatment of behavioral symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology, 48 (Suppl. 6), S17–24.Google Scholar
Breier, A., Sutton, V. K., Feldman, P. D.et al. (2002). Olanzapine in the treatment of dopamimetic-induced psychosis in patients with Parkinson's disease. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 438–45.Google Scholar
Brodaty, H., Ames, D., Snowdon, J. (2003). A randomized placebo-controlled trial of risperidone for the treatment of aggression, agitation, and psychosis of dementia. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 64, 134–43.Google Scholar
Bronskill, S. E., Anderson, G. M., Sykora, K.et al. (2004). Neuroleptic drug therapy in older adults newly admitted to nursing homes: incidence, dose, and specialist contact. Journal of the American Geriatric Society, 52, 749–55.Google Scholar
Brown, K. W., Sloan, R. L. & Pentland, B. (1998). Fluoxetine as a treatment for post-stroke emotionalism. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 98, 455–8.Google Scholar
Burke, W. J., Dewan, V., Wengel, S. P., Roccaforte, W. H., Nadolny, G. C. & Folks, D. G. (1997). The use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors for depression and psychosis complicating dementia. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 12, 519–25.Google Scholar
Caligiuri, M. P., Lacro, J. P., Rockwell, E., McAdams, L. A. & Jeste, D. V. (1997). Incidence and risk factors for severe tardive dyskinesia in older patients. British Journal of Psychiatry, 171, 148–53.Google Scholar
Caligiuri, M. R., Jeste, D. V. & Lacro, J. P. (2000). Antipsychotic-induced movement disorders in the elderly: epidemiology and treatment recommendations. Drugs Aging, 17, 363–84.Google Scholar
Carson, A. J., MacHale, S., Allen, K.et al. (2000). Depression after stroke and lesion location: a systematic review. Lancet, 356, 122–6.Google Scholar
Celesia, G. G. & Barr, A. N. (1970). Psychosis and other psychiatric manifestations of levodopa therapy. Archives of Neurology, 23, 193–200.Google Scholar
Chan, W. C., Lam, L. C., Choy, C. N., Leung, V. P., Li, S. W. & Chiu, H. F. (2001). A double-blind randomised comparison of risperidone and haloperidol in the treatment of behavioural and psychological symptoms in Chinese dementia patients. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 16, 1156–62.Google Scholar
Chung, T. H., Deane, K. H., Ghazi-Noori, S.et al. (2003). Systematic review of antidepressant therapies in Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism and Related Disorders, 10, 59–65.Google Scholar
Clark, W. S., Street, J. S., Feldman, P. D. & Breier, A. (2001). The effects of olanzapine in reducing the emergence of psychosis among nursing home patients with Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62, 34–40.Google Scholar
Cohen-Mansfield, J. (2001). Nonpharmacologic interventions for inappropriate behaviors in dementia: a review, summary, and critique. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 9, 361–81.Google Scholar
Conn, D. K. & Goldman, Z. (1992). Pattern of use of antidepressants in long-term care facilities for the elderly. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 5, 228–32.Google Scholar
Cummings, J. L. (1992). Depression and Parkinson's disease: a review. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 443–54.Google Scholar
Cummings, J. L., Street, J., Masterman, D. & Clark, W. S. (2002). Efficacy of olanzapine in the treatment of psychosis in dementia with lewy bodies. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 13, 67–73.Google Scholar
Dam, M., Tonin, P., Boni, A.et al (1996). Effects of fluoxetine and maprotiline on functional recovery in poststroke hemiplegic patients undergoing rehabilitation therapy. Stroke, 27, 1211–14.Google Scholar
Davison, K. & Bagley, C. R. (1969). Schizophrenia-like psychoses associated with organic disorders of the central nervous system: a review of the literature. In Current Problems in Neuropsychiatry: Schizophrenia, Epilepsy, and the Temporal Lobe, ed. Herrington, R. N., pp. 113–84. London: Headley.
Deyn, P. P., Carrasco, M. M., Deberdt, W.et al. (2004). Olanzapine versus placebo in the treatment of psychosis with or without associated behavioral disturbances in patients with Alzheimer's disease. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 19, 115–26.Google Scholar
Deyn, P. P., Rabheru, K., Rasmussen, A.et al. (1999). A randomized trial of risperidone, placebo, and haloperidol for behavioral symptoms of dementia. Neurology, 53, 946–55.Google Scholar
Leon, O. A. (2004). Treatment of psychotic symptoms with lamotrigine in Alzheimer disease. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 24, 232–3.Google Scholar
Devanand, D. P. & Levy, S. R. (1995). Neuroleptic treatment of agitation and psychosis in dementia. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 8 (Suppl. 1), S18–27.Google Scholar
Devanand, D. P., Marder, K., Michaels, K. S.et al. (1998). A randomized, placebo-controlled dose-comparison trial of haloperidol for psychosis and disruptive behaviors in Alzheimer's disease. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 1512–20.Google Scholar
Doody, R. S., Stevens, J. C., Beck, C.et al. (2001). Practice parameter: management of dementia (an evidence-based review). Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology, 56, 1154–66.Google Scholar
Edell, W. S. & Tunis, S. L. (2001). Antipsychotic treatment of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia in geropsychiatric inpatients. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 9, 289–97.Google Scholar
Ellis, T., Cudkowicz, M. E., Sexton, P. M. & Growdon, J. H. (2000). Clozapine and risperidone treatment of psychosis in Parkinson's disease. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 12, 364–9.Google Scholar
Erkinjuntti, T., Roman, G., Gauthier, S.et al. (2004). Emerging therapies for vascular dementia and vascular cognitive impairment. Stroke, 35, 1010–17.Google Scholar
Factor, S. A., Friedman, J. H., Lannon, M. C., Oakes, D. & Bourgeois, K. (2001). Clozapine for the treatment of drug-induced psychosis in Parkinson's disease: results of the 12 week open label extension in the PSYCLOPS trial. Movement Disorders, 16, 135–9.Google Scholar
Factor, S. A., Molho, E. S. & Friedman, J. H. (2002). Risperidone and Parkinson's disease. Movement Disorders, 17, 221–2.Google Scholar
Factor, S. A., Feustel, P. J., Friedman, J. H.et al. (2003). Longitudinal outcome of Parkinson's disease patients with psychosis. Neurology, 60, 1756–61.Google Scholar
Fernandez, H. H., Friedman, J. H., Jacques, C. & Rosenfeld, M. (1999). Quetiapine for the treatment of drug-induced psychosis in Parkinson's disease. Movement Disorders, 14, 484–7.Google Scholar
Fernandez, H. H., Trieschmann, M. E., Burke, M. A. & Friedman, J. H. (2002). Quetiapine for psychosis in Parkinson's disease versus dementia with Lewy bodies. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 63, 513–15.Google Scholar
Fields, R. B. & Coffey C. E. (1994). Traumatic brain injury. In Textbook of Geriatric Neuropsychiatry, ed. Coffey, C. E. & Cummings, J. L., pp. 479–508. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
Fontaine, C. S., Hynan, L. S., Koch, K., Martin-Cook, K., Svetlik, D. & Weiner, M. F. (2003). A double-blind comparison of olanzapine versus risperidone in the acute treatment of dementia-related behavioral disturbances in extended care facilities. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 64, 726–30.Google Scholar
Friedman, J. H., Goldstein, S. & Jacques, C. (1998). Substituting clozapine for olanzapine in psychiatrically stable Parkinson's disease patients: results of an open label pilot study. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 21, 285–8.Google Scholar
Fruehwald, S., Gatterbauer, E., Rhak, P. & Baumhackl, U. (2003). Early fluoxetine treatment of post-stroke depression – a 3-month double blind, placebo-controlled study with an open-label long-term follow up. Journal of Neurology, 250, 347–51.Google Scholar
Fujikawa, T., Takahashi, T., Kinoshita, A.et al. (2004). Quetiapine treatment for behavioral and psychological symptoms in patients with senile dementia of Alzheimer type. Neuropsychobiology, 49, 201–4.Google Scholar
Gareri, P., Cotroneo, A., Lacava, R.et al. (2004). Comparison of the efficacy of new and conventional antipsychotic drugs in the treatment of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD). Archives of Gerontology Geriatric Supplement, 9, 207–15.Google Scholar
Ghazi-Noori, S., Chung, T. H., Deane, K. H. O.et al. (2003). Therapies for depression in Parkinson's disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 3, CD003465. Oxford: Update Software Ltd.
Giladi, N., Treves, T. A., Paleacu, D.et al. (2000). Risk factors for dementia, depression and psychosis in long-standing Parkinson's disease. Journal of Neural Transmission, 107, 59–71.Google Scholar
Goetz, C. G., Blasucci, L. M., Leurgans, S. & Pappert, E. J. (2000). Olanzapine and clozapine: comparative effects on motor function in hallucinating PD patients. Neurology, 55, 789–94.Google Scholar
Goldstein, L. B. (1995). Common drugs may influence motor recovery after stroke. The Sygen In Acute Stroke Study Investigators. Neurology, 45, 865–71.Google Scholar
GPDS (2000). Global Parkinson's Disease Survey. PDGS pamphlet.
Graham, J. M., Sussman, J. D., Ford, K. S. & Sagar, H. J. (1998). Olanzapine in the treatment of hallucinosis in idiopathic Parkinson's disease: a cautionary note. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 65, 774–7.Google Scholar
Health Canada (2000). Updated safety information for risperdal (risperidone) in elderly dementia patients. Announced in Canada by Janssen-Ortho Inc Oct 17, 2000. Available at http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hpfb-dgpsa/tpd-dpt/risperdal2_e.html. Accessed November 5 2004.
Herrmann, N. & Lanctot, K. L. (1997). From transmitters to treatment: the pharmacotherapy of behavioural disturbances in dementia. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 42 (Suppl. 1), 51S–64S.Google Scholar
Herrmann, N., Mamdani, M. & Lanctôt, K. L. (2004). Atypical antipsychotics and risk of cerebrovascular accidents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 1113–15.Google Scholar
Hwang, J. P., Yang, C. H. & Tsai, S. J. (2003). Phantom boarder symptom in dementia. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18, 417–20.Google Scholar
Jeste, D. V., Caligiuri, M. P., Paulsen, J. S.et al. (1995). Risk of tardive dyskinesia in older patients. A prospective longitudinal study of 266 outpatients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 756–65.Google Scholar
Johnson, M. L., Roberts, M. D., Ross, A. R. & Witten, C. M. (1992). Methylphenidate in stroke patients with depression. American Journal of Physical Medical Rehabilitation, 71, 239–41.Google Scholar
Jorge, R. E., Robinson, R. G., Arndt, S. & Starkstein, S. (2003). Mortality and poststroke depression: a placebo controlled trial of antidepressants. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 1823–9.Google Scholar
Juncos, J. L., Roberts, V. J., Evatt, M. L.et al. (2004). Quetiapine improves psychotic symptoms and cognition in Parkinson's disease. Movement Disorders, 19, 29–35.Google Scholar
Katz, I. R., Jeste, D. V., Mintzer, J. E., Clyde, C., Napolitano, J. & Brecher, M. (1999). Comparison of risperidone and placebo for psychosis and behavioral disturbances associated with dementia: a randomized, double-blind trial. Risperidone Study Group. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60, 107–15.Google Scholar
Katz, I. R., Rupnow, M., Kozma, C. & Schneider, L. (2004). Risperidone and falls in ambulatory nursing home residents with dementia and psychosis or agitation: secondary analysis of a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 12, 499–508.Google Scholar
Kaufer, D., Cummings, J. L. & Christine, D. (1998). Differential neuropsychiatric symptom responses to tacrine in Alzheimer's disease: relationship to dementia severity. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 10, 55–63.Google Scholar
Kimura, M., Kanetani, K., Imai, R.et al. (2002). Therapeutic effects of milnacipran, a serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor, on post stroke depression. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 17, 121–5.Google Scholar
Klaassen, T., Verhey, F. R. J., Sneijders, G. H. J. M.et al. (1995). Treatment of depression in Parkinson's disease: a meta-analysis. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 7, 281–6.Google Scholar
Knapp, M., Ilson, S. & David, A. (2002). Depot antipsychotic preparations in schizophrenia: the state of the economic evidence. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 17, 135–40.Google Scholar
Knopp, W. (1970). Psychiatric changes in patients treated with levodopa. I. The clinical experiment. Neurology, 20, 23–30.Google Scholar
Lawlor, B. A. (2004). Behavioral and psychological symptoms in dementia: the role of atypical antipsychotics. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65 (Suppl. 11), 5–10.Google Scholar
Lazarus, L. W., Winemiller, D. R., Lingam, V. R.et al. (1992). Efficacy and side effects of methylphenidate for poststroke depression. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 53, 447–9.Google Scholar
Leentjens, A. F. (2004). Depression in Parkinson's disease: conceptual issues and clinical challenges. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 17, 120–6.Google Scholar
Lindsay, J., Sykes, E., McDowell, I., Verreault, R. & Laurin, D. (2004). More than the epidemiology of Alzheimer's disease: contributions of the Canadian Study of Health and Aging. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 49, 83–91.Google Scholar
Liperoti, R., Mor, V., Lapane, K. L., Pedone, C., Gambassi, G. & Bernabei, R. (2003). The use of atypical antipsychotics in nursing homes. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 64, 1106–12.Google Scholar
Lyketos, C. G., DelCampo, L., Steinberg, M.et al. (2003). Treating depression in Alzheimer's disease: efficacy and safety of sertraline therapy, and the benefits of depression reduction: the DIADS. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 737–46.Google Scholar
Lyness, J. M., King, D. A., Conwell, Y.et al. (2000). Cerebrovascular risk factors and 1-year depression outcome in older primary care patients. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 157, 1499–501.Google Scholar
Lysketos, C. G., Sheppard, J. M., Steele, C. D.et al. (2000). Randomised, placebo-controlled, double blind clinical trial of sertraline in the treatment of depression complicating Alzheimer's disease: initial results from the Depression in Alzheimer's Disease study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1686–9.Google Scholar
Mancini, F., Tassorelli, C., Martignoni, E.et al. (2004). Long-term evaluation of the effect of quetiapine on hallucinations, delusions and motor function in advanced Parkinson disease. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 27, 33–7.Google Scholar
Marsh, L., Lyketsos, C. & Reich, S. G. (2001). Olanzapine for the treatment of psychosis in patients with Parkinson's disease and dementia. Psychosomatics, 42, 477–81.Google Scholar
Masand, P., Murray, G. B. & Picket, P. (1991). Psychostimulants in post-stroke depression. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 3, 23–7.Google Scholar
McKeith, I. G., Galasko, D., Kosaka, K.et al. (1996). Consensus guidelines for the clinical and pathological diagnosis of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB): report of the consortium on DLB international workshop. Neurology, 47, 1113–24.Google Scholar
McKeith, I. G., Perry, E. K. & Perry, R. H. (1999). Report of the second Dementia with Lewy body International Workshop: diagnosis and treatment. Consortium on Dementia with Lewy Bodies. Neurology, 53, 902–5.Google Scholar
McKeith, I., Del Ser, T., Spano, P.et al. (2000). Efficacy of rivastigmine in dementia with Lewy bodies: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled international study. Lancet, 356, 2031–6.Google Scholar
Michals, M. L, Crismon, M. L., Roberts, S. & Childs, A. (1993). Clozapine response and adverse effects in nine brain-injured patients. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 13, 198–203.Google Scholar
Mohr, E., Mendis, T., Hildebrand, K. & Deyn, P. P. (2000). Risperidone in the treatment of dopamine-induced psychosis in Parkinson's disease: an open pilot trial. Movement Disorders, 15, 1230–7.Google Scholar
Moretti, R., Torre, P., Antonello, R. M.et al. (2002). Depression and Alzheimer's disease: symptom or comorbidity? American Journal of Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementias, 17, 338–44.Google Scholar
Morgante, L., Epifanio, A., Spina, E.et al. (2002). Quetiapine versus clozapine: a preliminary report of comparative effects on dopaminergic psychosis in patients with Parkinson's disease. Neurological Sciences, 23 (Suppl. 2), S89–90.Google Scholar
Morris, J. C., Cyrus, P. A., Orazem, J.et al. (1998). Metrifonate benefits cognitive, behavioral, and global function in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Neurology, 50, 1222–30.Google Scholar
Morris, P., Hopwood, M., Maguire, K.et al. (2003). Blunted prolactin response to D-fenfluramine in post-stroke major depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 76, 273–8.Google Scholar
Musser, W. S. & Akil, M. (1996). Clozapine as a treatment for psychosis in Parkinson's disease: a review. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 8, 1–9.Google Scholar
Narushima, K., Kosier, J. T. & Robinson, R. G. (2002). Preventing poststroke depression: a 12-week double-blind randomized treatment trial and 21 month follow up. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 190, 296–303.Google Scholar
Neidermaier, N., Bohrer, E., Schulte, K.et al. (2004). Prevention and treatment of poststroke depression with mirtazapine in patients with acute stroke. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65, 1619–23.Google Scholar
Newman, S. C. (1999). The prevalence of depression in Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia in a population sample. Journal of Affective Disorders, 52, 169–76.Google Scholar
Olin, J. & Schneider, L. (2004). Galantamine for Alzheimer's disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 4, CD001747. Oxford: Update Software Ltd.
Palomaki, H., Kaste, M. & Berg, A. (1999). Prevention of poststroke depression: 1 year randomized placebo controlled, double blind trial of mianserin with 6-month follow up after therapy. Journal of Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 66, 490–4.Google Scholar
Parkinson Study Group (1999). Low-dose clozapine for the treatment of drug-induced psychosis in Parkinson's disease. New England Journal of Medicine, 340, 757–63.
Pearlman, C. A. Jr., Sax, D. S. & Feldman, R. D. (1972). Psychiatric aspects of L-dopa therapy of Parkinson's disease. Psychiatry and Medicine, 3, 45–50.Google Scholar
Pollak, P., Tison, F., Rascol, O.et al. (2004). Clozapine in drug induced psychosis in Parkinson's disease: a randomised, placebo controlled study with open follow up. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 75, 689–95.Google Scholar
Pollock, B. G., Mulsant, B. H., Rosen, J.et al. (2002). Comparison of citalopram, perphenazine, and placebo for the acute treatment of psychosis and behavioral disturbances in hospitalized, demented patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 460–5.Google Scholar
Rabey, J. M., Orlov, E. & Korcyzn, A. D. (1996). Comparison of fluvoxamine versus amitryptiline for treatment of depression in Parkinson's disease. Neurology, 46, A374.Google Scholar
Rabinowitz, J., Katz, I. R., Deyn, P. P., Brodaty, H., Greenspan, A. & Davidson, M.Behavioral and psychological symptoms in patients with dementia as a target for pharmacotherapy with risperidone. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65, 1329–34.
Rabins, P. V., Starkstein, S. E. & Robinson, R. G. (1991). Risk factors for developing atypical (schizophreniform) psychosis following stroke. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 3, 6–9.Google Scholar
Rampello, L., Chiechio, S., Nicoletti, G.et al. (2004). Prediction of the response to citalopram and reboxetine in post-stroke depressed patients. Psychopharmacology (Berl.), 173, 73–8.Google Scholar
Rao, N., Jellinek, H. M. & Woolston, D. C. (1985). Agitation in closed head injury: haloperidol effects on rehabilitation outcome. Archives of Physical and Medical Rehabilitation, 66, 30–4.Google Scholar
Rao, R., Jackson, S. & Howard, R. (2001). Depression in older people with mild stroke, carotid stenosis and peripheral vascular disease: a comparison with healthy controls. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 16, 175–83.Google Scholar
Rapoport, M. J. & Feinstein, A. (2000). Outcome following traumatic brain injury in the elderly: a critical review. Brain Injuries, 14, 749–61.Google Scholar
Rapoport, M. J., Mamdani, M., Shulman, K. I., Herrmann, N. & Rochon, P. A. (2004). Antipsychotic prescriptions in the elderly: Changing trends and increasing costs. Poster presented at the American Psychiatric Association 157th Annual Meeting, May 1–6, New York, NY., 2004
Rapoport, M. J., & van Reekum, R. (2000). Treating psychosis in dementia. In Treating Dementia: Cognition and Beyond. ed. Ancill, R. J., Holliday, S. G., Thorpe, L. & Rabheru, K.. Vancouver, BC: Canadian Academic Press.
Rasmussen, A., Lunde, M., Poulsen, D. L.et al. (2003). A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of sertraline in the prevention of depression in stroke patients. Psychosomatics, 44, 216–21.Google Scholar
Reichman, W. E. & Coyne, A. C. (1995). Depressive symptoms in Alzheimer's disease and multi-infarct dementia. Journal of Geriatrics, Psychiatry and Neurology, 8, 96–9.Google Scholar
Rich, S. S., Friedman, J. H. & Ott, B. R. (1995). Risperidone versus clozapine in the treatment of psychosis in six patients with Parkinson's disease and other akinetic-rigid syndromes. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 56, 556–9.Google Scholar
Ritchie, C. W. (2005). The use of antipsychotic medication for schizophrenia occurring in late life. In Psychosis in the Elderly, ed. Hassett, A., Ames, D. & Chiu, E.. London: Taylor Francis Publishing.
Robinson, R. G., Kubos, K. L., Starr, L. B.et al. (1983). Mood changes in stroke patients: relationship to lesion location. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 24, 555–66.Google Scholar
Rosler, M., Retz, W., Retz-Junginger, P. & Dennler, H. J. (1998). Effects of two-year treatment with the cholinesterase inhibitor rivastigmine on behavioural symptoms in Alzheimer's disease. Behavioral Neurology, 11, 211–16.Google Scholar
Scharre, D. W. & Chang, S. I. (2002). Cognitive and behavioral effects of quetiapine in Alzheimer disease patients. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, 16, 128–30.Google Scholar
Schneider, L. S., Pollock, V. E. & Lyness, S. A. (1990). A metaanalysis of controlled trials of neuroleptic treatment in dementia. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 38, 553–63.Google Scholar
Schneider, L. S., Katz, I. R., Park, S., Napolitano, J., Martinez, R. A., Azen, S. P. (2003). Psychosis of Alzheimer disease: validity of the construct and response to risperidone. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 11, 414–25.Google Scholar
Schneider, L. S. & Dagerman, K. S. (2004). Psychosis of Alzheimer's disease: clinical characteristics and history. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 38, 105–11.Google Scholar
Schrag, A., Jahanashani, M. & Quin, N. (2000). What contributes to quality of life in patients with Parkinson's disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 69, 308–12.Google Scholar
Singh, A., Hermann, N. & Black, S. E. (1999). The importance of lesion location in post-stroke depression: a critical review. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 43, 921–7.Google Scholar
Spalletta, G. & Caltagirone, C. (2003). Sertraline treatment of post-stroke major depression: an open study in patients with moderate to severe symptoms. Functional Neurology, 18, 227–32.Google Scholar
Stanislav, S. W. (1997). Cognitive effects of antipsychotic agents in persons with traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 11, 335–41.Google Scholar
Starkstein, S. E., Robinson, R. G. & Price, T. R. (1987). Comparison of cortical and subcortical lesions in the production of post-stroke mood disorders. Brain, 110, 1054–9.Google Scholar
Stewart, R. (2002). The interface between cerebrovascular disease, depression and dementia. In Vascular Disease and Affective Disorders, ed. Chiu, E., Ames, D. & Katona, C.London: Martin Dunitz Publishing.
Street, J. S., Clark, W. S., Gannon, K. S.et al. (2000). Olanzapine treatment of psychotic and behavioral symptoms in patients with Alzheimer disease in nursing care facilities: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. The HGEU Study Group. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 968–76.Google Scholar
Street, J. S., Clark, W. S., Kadam, D. L.et al. (2001). Long-term efficacy of olanzapine in the control of psychotic and behavioral symptoms in nursing home patients with Alzheimer's dementia. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 16 (Suppl. 1), S62–70.Google Scholar
Suh, G. H., Son, H. G., Ju, Y. S.et al. (2004). A randomized, double-blind, crossover comparison of risperidone and haloperidol in Korean dementia patients with behavioral disturbances. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 12, 509–16.Google Scholar
Sunderland, T. (1996). Treatment of the elderly suffering from psychosis and dementia. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 57 (Suppl. 9), 53–6.Google Scholar
Taragano, F. E., Allegri, R. & Vicario, A. (2001). A double-blind, randomized clinical trial assessing the efficacy and safety of augmenting standard antidepressant therapy with nimodipine in the treatment of ‘vascular depression’. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 16, 254–60.Google Scholar
Taragano, F. E., Lysketos, C. G., Mangone, C. A.et al. (1997). A double-blind, randomised, fixed-dose trial of fluoxetine vs. amitryptiline in the treatment of major depression complicating Alzheimer's disease. Psychosomatics, 38, 246–52.Google Scholar
Targum, S. D. & Abbott, J. L. (2000). Efficacy of quetiapine in Parkinson's patients with psychosis. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 20, 54–60.Google Scholar
Tariot, P. N. (1996). Treatment strategies for agitation and psychosis in dementia. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 57 (Suppl. 14) 21–9.Google Scholar
Tariot, P. N., Salzman, C., Yeung, P. P., Pultz, J., Rak, I. W. (2000). Long-term use of quetiapine in elderly patients with psychotic disorders. Clinical Therapist, 22, 1068–84.Google Scholar
United States General Accounting Office (1998). Alzheimer's Disease: Estimates of Prevalence in the United States. Washington, DC: United States General Accounting Office.
Berg, M. D., Oldehinkel, A. J., Bouhuys, A. L.et al. (2001). Depression in late life: three etiologically different subgroups. Journal of Affective Disorders, 65, 19–26.Google Scholar
Eeden, S. K., Tanner, C. M., Bernstein, A. L. (2003). Incidence of Parkinson's disease: variation by age, gender, and race/ethnicity. American Journal of Epidemiology, 157, 1015–22.Google Scholar
Reekum, R., Clarke, D., Conn, D.et al. (2002). A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of the discontinuation of long-term antipsychotics in dementia. International Psychogeriatrics, 14, 197–210.Google Scholar
Vataja, R., Pohjasvaara, T., Leppavuori, A. & Erkinjutti, T. (2002). Post stroke depression. In Vascular Disease and Affective Disorders, ed. Chiu, E., Ames, D. & Katona, C.. London: Martin Dunitz Publishing.
Verhey, F. R., Ponds, R. W., Rozendaal, N. & Jolles, J. (1995). Depression, insight, and personality changes in Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia. Journal of Geriatrics, Psychiatry and Neurology, 8, 23–7.Google Scholar
Weiner, M. F., Martin-Cook, K., Foster, B. M.et al. (2000). Effects of donepezil on emotional/behavioural symptoms in Alzheimer's disease patients. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 61, 487–92.Google Scholar
Wermuth, L., Sorensen, P. S., Timm, B.et al. (1998). Depression in idiopathic Parkinson's disease treated with citalopram – a placebo controlled trial. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 52, 163–9.Google Scholar
Wiart, L., Petit, H., Joseph, P. A.et al. (2000). Fluoxetine in early post-stroke depression: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Stroke, 31, 1829–32.Google Scholar
Workman, R. H. Jr., Orengo, C. A., Bakey, A. A., Molinari, V. A. & Kunik, M. E. (1997). The use of risperidone for psychosis and agitation in demented patients with Parkinson's disease. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 9, 594–7.Google Scholar
Wynn, Z. J. & Cummings, J. L. (2004). Cholinesterase inhibitor therapies and neuropsychiatric manifestations of Alzheimer's disease. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 17, 100–8.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×