Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-31T19:23:29.298Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

4 - The Chien-wen, Yung-lo, Hung-hsi, and Hsüan-te reigns, 1399–1435

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 March 2008

By
Hok-lam Chan
Edited by
Frederick W. Mote  and
Denis Twitchett
Hok-lam Chan
Affiliation:
University of Washington
Get access

Summary

INTRODUCTION

The period from 1399 to 1436 spans the reigns of four descendants of the founding emperor. The short Chien-wen reign (1399–1402) which was ended precipitously by usurpation, preceded the Yung-lo reign (1403–25), an era of imperial consolidation and expansion; the Hung-hsi reign (1425– 26), which lasted only nine months, was followed by a period of stability and retrenchment during the Hsüan-te reign (1426–36). There were, then, two short interludes separating the three major reigns of the early Ming.

Despite the disorder brought about by the civil war of 1399–1402, there are more continuities with the past than discontinuities in the political, social, economic, intellectual, and cultural developments that occurred during these thirty-seven years. That is to say, institutional arrangements and policies under these four Ming emperors were largely shaped by the vision of the dynastic founder and by the policies he set in motion to realize it. Changes in earlier policies and systems did occur, particularly during the reign of the Yung-lo emperor; but under his successors certain of these were curtailed or abandoned, and what further changes did occur were for the most part moderate adjustments carried out within the framework of established institutions and traditions. This style of government established a tradition of conservatism at court early in the dynasty; at the same time it fostered dynastic stability and preserved intact both the lands and the spirit bequeathed by the founder of the dynasty.

The transfer of the imperial capital from Nanking to Peking under the Yung-lo emperor remains the most significant institutional change of this period. Although the Hung-hsi emperor attempted to return the court to Nanking, Peking became the imperial capital once again in the following reign, and it remained thereafter the capital of the Ming empire. Another major change occurred in the office of the grand secretaries: to fill the gap that existed between the throne and the imperial bureaucracy – a gap created when the founding emperor did away with the secretariat in 1380 – the grand secretaries began to advise the throne on matters of policy.

Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge History of China , pp. 182 - 304
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 1988

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Chan, David B. The usurpation of the Prince of Yen, 1398–1402. San Francisco: Chinese Materials Center, 1976.
Chan, Hok-lam (Ch'en Hsüeh-lin). “The legitimation of usurpation: Historiographical revisions under Emperor Yung-lo.” Paper presented to the Conference on the Legitimation of the Chinese Imperial Regimes. Asiloma, Monterey, California, June 1975.
Chan, Hok-lam (Ch'en Hsüeh-lin). “The rise of Ming T'ai-tsu (1368–98): Facts and fictions in early Ming official historiography.” Journal of the American Oriental Society, 95, No. 4 (October–December 1975).Google Scholar
Chan, Wing-tsit. “The Hsing-li ching-i and the Ch'eng-Chu School.” In The unfolding of Neo-Confucianism, ed. Bary, Wm. Theodore. New York: Columbia University Press, 1975.Google Scholar
Chang, Hsiu-min. “Ming tai Chiao-chih jen tsai Chung-kuo chih kung hsien.” Hsüeh yüan, 3, No. 1 (1950) ; rpt. in Ming tai kuo chi kuan hsi, Vol. VII of Ming shih lun ts'ung, ed. Tsun-p'eng, Pao. Taipei: Hsüeh-sheng shu-chü, 1968.Google Scholar
Chang, I-shan. “To kuo hou ti Ming Ch'eng-tsu yü chu fan wang kuan hsi k'ao.” (Kuo li T'ai-wan ta-hsüeh) Wen shih che hsüeh pao, 31 (December 1982).Google Scholar
Chang, T'ing- yü et al. ed. Ming shih. 1736; rpt. Peking: Chung-hua shu-chü, 1974.
Chang, Wei-hua. Ming tai hai wai mao i chien lun. Shanghai: Hsüeh-hsi sheng-huo ch'u-pan she, 1955; rpt. Shanghai: Jen-min ch'u-pan she, 1956.
Chao, Ling-yang (Chiu Ling-yeong) et al., eds. Ming shih lu chung chih Tung-nan Ya shih liao. Vol. I, Hong Kong: Hsüeh-chin ch'u-pan she, 1968; and Vol. II, Hong Kong: Hsüeh-chin ch'u-pan she, 1976.
Chao, Shih-che. Chien-wen nien p'u. Author's preface 1636; rpt. in Chung-kuo shih hsüeh ts'ung shu, ed. Ping-sung, Ho. Shanghai: Shang-wu yin-shu kuan, 1935.
Ch'en, Wan-nai. Ming Hui-ti ch'u wang k'ao cheng. Kao-hsiung, Taiwan: Pai-ch'eng shu-tien, 1960.
Ch'en, Wen-shih. Ming Hung-wu Chia-ching chien ti hai chin cheng ts'e. Taipei: T'ai-wan ta-hsüeh wen-hsüeh yuan, 1966.
Cheng, Ho-sheng and Cheng, I-chün. Cheng Ho hsia Hsi-yang tzu liao hui pien. Chi-nan, Shantung: Ch'i-lu shu-she, 1980.
Cheng, Liang-sheng. Ming shih Jih-pen chuan cheng pu. Taipei: Wen-shih-che ch'u-pan she, 1981.
Chiang, Hsing-yü. K'uang Chung. Shanghai: Jen-min ch'u-pan she, 1981.
Chiu, Ling-yeong (Chao Ling-yang). “Sino-Javanese relations in the early Ming period.” In Symposium on historical, archaeological and linguistic studies on South China, Southeast Asia and the Hong Kong region. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1967.Google Scholar
Chou, Liang-hsiao. “Ming tai Su Sung ti ch'ü ti kuan t'ien yü chung fu wen t'i.” Li shih yen chiu, 10 (October 1957).Google Scholar
Chu, Hsieh [Chu Ch'i]. Cheng Ho. Peking: San-lien shu-tien 1956.
Chu, Hsieh. Chung-kuo yün ho shih liao hsüan chi. Peking: Chung-hua shu-chü, 1962.
Crawford, Robert B. “Eunuch power in the Ming dynasty.” T'oung pao, 49, No. 3 (1961).Google Scholar
Crawford, Robert B. et al. “Fang Hsiao-ju in the light of early Ming society.” Monumenta Serica, 15 (1956).Google Scholar
De Bary, Wm. Theodore. Neo-Confucian orthodoxy and the learning of the mind-and-heart. New York: Columbia University Press, 1981.
Dreyer, Edward L. Early Ming China: A Political history 1355 – 1435. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1982.
Farmer, Edward L. Early Ming government: The evolution of dual capitals. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976.
Farquhar, David M. “Oirat-Chinese tribute relations, 1408–1446.” In Studia Altaica, Festchrift für Nikolaus Poppe zum 60. Geburtstag am 8. August 1957. Ural-altaische Bibliothek, Series No. 5, ed. Farkas, Julius and Pritsak, Omeljan. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1957.Google Scholar
Fletcher, Joseph F. “China and Central Asia, 1368–1884.” In The Chinese world order: Traditional China's foreign relations, ed. Fairbank, John K.. Harvard East Asian Series, No. 32. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968.Google Scholar
Franke, Wolfgang. “Chinesische Feldzüge durch die Mongolei im frühen 15. Jahrhundert.” Sinologica, 3 (1951–53).Google Scholar
Franke, Wolfgang. An introduction to the sources of Ming history. Kuala Lumpur and Singapore: University of Malaya Press, 1968.
Franke, Wolfgang. “Yunglo's Mongolei-Feldzüge.” Sinologische Arbeiten, 3 (1945).Google Scholar
Friese, Heinz. “Der Mönch Yao Kuang-hsiao (1335–1418) und seine Zeit.” Oriens Extremus, 7, No. 1 (1960).Google Scholar
Fu, Ssu-nien. “Ming Ch'eng-tsu sheng mu chi i.” Chung yang yen chin yüan li shih yü yen yen chiu so chi k'an (Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica), 2, No. 3 (April 1931).Google Scholar
Gaspardone, Émile. “Deux essais de biographie annamite.” Sinologica, 11, No. 3–4 (1970).Google Scholar
Goodrich, L. Carrington. “More on the Yung-lo ta tien.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Hong Kong Branch, 10 (1970).Google Scholar
Goodrich, L. Carrington and Fang, Chaoying, ed. Dictionary of Ming biography. New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1976.
Greiner, Peter. Die Brokatuniform-Brigade (Chin-i wei) der Ming-Zeit von den Anfängen bis zum Ende der T'ien-shun-Periode (1368 – 1464). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1975.
Grimm, Tilemann. “Das Neiko der Ming-Zeit von den Anfängen bis 1506.” Oriens Extremus, I (1954).Google Scholar
Haneda, Tōru and Tamura, Jitsuzō, eds. Minjitsuroku-shō: Mōkohen. In Mindai Man-Mō shiryō, 18 vols, ed. Jitsuzō, Tamura. Kyoto: Kyōto daigaku bungakubu, 1954–59.
Hoshi, Ayao, Mindai sōun no kenkyū. Tokyo: Nihon gakujutsu shinkōkai, 1963.
Hou, Jen-chih. Pei-ching shih hua. Peking: Jen-min ch'u- pan she, 1980.
Hsieh, Min-ts'ung, Ming Ch'ing Pei-ching ti ch'eng yüan yü kung ch'üeh chih yen chiu Taipei: T'ai-wan hsüeh-sheng shu-chü, 1980.
Hsü, Yü-hu. Cheng Ho p'ing chuan. Taipei: Chung-hua wen-hua ch'u-an shih-yeh wei-yüan hui, 1958.
Hua, Hui. “Ming tai ting tu Nan-Pei-ching ti ching kuo”. Yü kung, 2, No. 11 (February 1935).Google Scholar
Huang, Chang-chien. “Tu ‘Huang Ming tien li’.” Chung yang yen chiu yüan li shih yü yen yen chiu so chi k'an (Bulletin of the Institution of History and Philology, Academia Sincia), 29, No. 2 (1958), pp. 661–76. Rpt. in his Ming Ch'ing shih yen chiu ts'ung kao, Taipei: T'ai-wan Shang-wu yin-shu kuan, 1977Google Scholar
Huang, Ray. “Administrative statistics in Ming T'ai-tsu shih lu: An illustration of Chinese bureaucratism as criticized by Dr. Needham.” Ming Studies, 16 (Spring 1983).Google Scholar
Huang, Ray. “Fiscal administration during the Ming dynasty.” In Chinese government in Ming times: Seven studies, ed. Hucker, Charles O.. New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1969.Google Scholar
Hucker, Charles O. The censorial system of Ming China. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1966.
Hucker, Charles O. “Governmental organization of the Ming dynasty.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 21 (1958) and 23 (1960–61).Google Scholar
Hucker, Charles O. The Ming dynasty: Its origins and evolving institutions. Michigan papers in Chinese studies, No. 34. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan, 1978.
Kahn, Harold L. Monarchy in the emperor's eyes: Image and reality in the Ch'ien-lung reign. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971.
Kolmas, Josef. Tibet and imperial China: A survey of Sino-Tibetan relations up to the end of the Manchu dynasty in 1912. Canberra: Centre of Oriental Studies, Australian National University, 1967.
Kuo, Po-kung. Yung-lo ta tien k'ao. Changsha: 1938; facsimile rpt. Taipei: T'ai-wan Shang-wu yin-shu kuan, 1962.
Li, Chin-hua. “Ming Ch'eng-tsu sheng mu wen t'i hui cheng.” Chung yang yen chiu yüan li shih yü yen yen chiu so chi k'an (Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica), 6, No. 1 (March 1936).Google Scholar
Li, Chin-hua. Ming shih tsuan hsiu k'ao. Pei-ching hsüeh-pao monograph series, No. 3. Peiping: Harvard-Yenching Institute, 1933.
Li, Chin-hua. Ming tai ch'ih chuan shu k'ao. Harvard-Yenching sinological index series supplement, No. 3. ed. Yeh, Hung. Peiping: Harvard-Yenching Institute, 1932.
Li, Lung-hua. “Ming tai ti k'ai chung fa.” Hsiang-kang Chung wen ta hsüeh Chung-kuo wen hua yen chiu so hsüeh pao (Journal of the Institute of Chinese Studies of the Chinese University of Hong Kong), 4, No. 2 (1971).Google Scholar
Li, Su-ying. “Ming Ch'eng-tsu pei cheng chi hsing ch'u pien” yü kung, 3, No. 8 (16 June 1935), 3, No. 9 (1 July 1935), and 3, No. 12 (16 August 1935).Google Scholar
Lin, Jen-ch'uan. “Lun Yung-lo ti.” Pei fang lun ts'ung, 4 (December 1982).Google Scholar
Liu, Tzu-cheng. “Ming tai Chung-kuo yü Wen-lai chiao wang k'ao.” Ming shih yen chiu chuan k'an, 5 (December 1982).Google Scholar
Lo, Jung-pang. “The decline of the Ming navy,” Oriens Extremus, 5 (1958).Google Scholar
Lo, Jung-pang. “Intervention in Annam: A case study of the foreign policy of the early Ming government.” Tsinghua Journal of Chinese Studies, 8, No. 1–2 (August 1970).Google Scholar
Lo, Jung-pang. “Policy formulation and decision-making on issues respecting peace and war.” In Chinese government in Ming times: Seven studies, ed. Hucker, Charles O.. Studies in Oriental Culture, No. 2. New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1969.Google Scholar
Lun, Ming. “Chien-wen hsün kuo k'ao i.” Fu-jen hsüeh chih, 73, No. 2 (July, 1932).Google Scholar
Maitra, K. M., trans. A Persian embassy to China, being an extract from Zubdatut Tawarikh of Hefiz Abru; new introd., Good-rich, L. Carrington. New York: Paragon, 1934; rpt. New York: Paragon, 1970.
Mano, Senryū. “Min jitsuroku no kenkyū.” In Mindai Man-Mō shi kenkyū, ed. Jitsuzō, Tamura. Kyoto:Kyōto daigaku bungakubu, 1963. Rpt. in his Mindai bunka shi kenkyū, Tōyōshi kenkyū sōkan, No. 31. Tokyo: Dōhōsha, 1979.Google Scholar
Mao, P'ei-ch'i. “Chien-wen hsin cheng ho Yung-lo ‘chi-t'ung’.” Chung-kuo shih yen chiu, 2 (April 1982).Google Scholar
Meng, Sen. Ming tai shih. 1957; rpt. Taipei: Chung-hua ts'ung-shu wei-yüan hui, 1967.
Mote, Frederick W. “The T'u-mu incident of 1449.” In Chinese Ways in warfare, ed. Kierman, Frank A. Jr., and Fairbank, John K.. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974.Google Scholar
Pai, Ts'ui-ch'in. Ming shih lu Wa-la tzu-liao chai pien, ed. shih-lüeh, Chun-ko-er. Hsin-chiang li shih tzu liao yen chiu ts'ung shu. Urumchi: Hsin-chiang jen-min ch'u-pan she, 1982.Google Scholar
Pao, Tsun-p'eng Cheng Ho hsia Hsi-yang chih pao ch'uan k'ao Taipei: Chung-kuo ts'ung shu pien-shen wei-yüan hui, 1961.
P'eng, Hsin-wei. Chung-kuo huo pi shih. First ed. Shanghai: Ch'ün-lien ch'u-pan she, 1954; 2nd. ed. Shanghai: Jen-min ch'u-pan she, 1958; 3rd ed. Shanghai: Jen-min ch'u-pan she, 1965.
Pokotilov, D. History of the Eastern Mongols during the Ming dynasty, trans. Loewenthal, Rudolf. Studia Serica, Series A, No. 1. Chengtu: West China Union University, 1947.Google Scholar
Richardson, Hugh. A short history of Tibet. New York: Dutton, 1962.
Rossabi, Morris. “Cheng Ho and Timur: any relations?” Oriens Extremus, 20, No. 2 (December 1973).Google Scholar
Rossabi, Morris. China and Inner Asia from 1368 to the present day. New York: Pica Press, 1975.
Rossabi, Morris. The Jurchens in the Yüan and Ming. Ithaca, N.Y.: China and Japan Program, Cornell University, 1982.
Rossabi, Morris. “Ming China and Turfan, 1406–1517.” Central Asiatic Review, 16, No. 3 (1972).Google Scholar
Rossabi, Morris. “A translation of Ch'en Ch'eng's Hsi-yü fan-kuo chih.” Ming Studies, 17 (Fall 1983).Google Scholar
Rossabi, Morris. “Two Ming envoys to Inner Asia.” T'oung pao, 62, No. 3 (1976).Google Scholar
Sakakura, Atsuhide. “Kenbuntei no seisaku”. Jim-bun ronkyū (Kansai gakuin, 27, No. 3–4 (1978).Google Scholar
Serruys, Henri. Sino-Jürčed relations during the Yung-lo period, 1403–1424. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1955.
Serruys, Henri. (Sino-Mongol relations during the Ming. I) The Mongols in China during the Hung-wu period (1368–1398). In Mélanges chinois et bouddhiques, Vol. II, 1956–59. Bruxelles: l'Institut beige des hautes études chinoises, 1959.
Serruys, Henri. (Sino-Mongol relations during the Ming. II) The tribute system and diplomatic missions, 1400–1600. In Mélanges chinois et bouddhiques, Vol. 14, 1966–67. Bruxelles: l'Institut beige des hautes études chinoises, 1967.
Serruys, Henri. “Sino-Mongol trade during the Ming.” Journal of Asian History, 9, No. 1 (1975).Google Scholar
Serruys, Henry. “Foreigners in the metropolitan police during the fifteenth century” Oriens Extremus, 8, No. 1 (August 1961).Google Scholar
Serruys, Henry. “A manuscript version of the legend of the Mongol ancestry of the Yung-lo emperor”. Analecta Mongolica dedicated to the seventieth birthday of Professor Owen Lattimore. The Mongolia Society occasional papers, No. 8. Bloomington, Ind.: Mongolia Society, 1972.Google Scholar
Serruys, Henry. “Mongol tribute missions of the Ming period.” Central Asiatic Review, 11, No. 1 (March 1966).Google Scholar
Shaw, S. J. “Historical significance of the curious theory of the Mongol blood in the veins of the Ming emperors.” The Chinese Social and Political Science Review, 20 (1937).Google Scholar
Shen, Kang-po. “Fang Hsiao-ju ti cheng chih hsüeh shuo”. Ta-lu tsa chih, 22, No. 5 (March 1961).Google Scholar
Stein, Rolf Alfred. Tibetan civilization, trans. Stapleton Driver, J. E.. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1972.
Su, Chung-jen (Su Tsung-jen). “The battle of Ceylon, 1411.” In Shou Lo Hsiang-lin chiao shou lun wen chi [Essays in Chinese studies presented to Professor Lo Hsiang-lin on his retirement], ed. ,Department of Chinese, University of Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Wan-yu-t'u kung-ssu, 1970.Google Scholar
Sun, Yüan-chen. “Ming tai t'un t'ien chih yen chiu.” Rpt. in Ming shih lun ts'ung Vol. 8, ed. Tsun-p'eng, Pao Taipei: Hsüeh-sheng shu-chü, 1968.Google Scholar
Terada, Takanobu. Eiraku tei. Tokyo: Jinbutsu ōraisha, 1966.
Ting, I (Yeh Ting). Ming tai t'e wu cheng chih. Peking: Chung-wai ch'u-pan she, 1950.
Tu, Nai-chi. Ming tai nei ko chih tu. Taipei: T'ai-wan Shang-wu yin-shu kuan, 1967.
Waldron, Arthur N. “The problem of the Great Wall.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 43, No. 2 (December 1983).Google Scholar
Wang, Ch'ung-wu, ed. Feng t'ien ching nan chi chu. Chung yang yen chiu yüan li shih yü yen yen chiu so chi k'an (Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica), special publication No. 28. Shanghai: Shang-wu yin-shu kuan, 1948.
Wang, Ch'ung-wu. “Ming Ch'eng-tsu yü fang shih.” Chung-kuo she hui ching chi shih chi k'an, 8, No. 1 (1949).Google Scholar
Wang, Ch'ung-wu. Ming ching nan shih shih k'ao cheng kao. Chung yang yen chiu yüan li shih yü yen yen chiu so chi k'an (Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica), special publication, No. 25. Shanghai: Shang-wu yin-shu kuan, 1945; facsimile rpt. Hong Kong: Lung-men shu-tien, 1969.
Wang, Ch'ung-wu. Ming pen chi chiao chu. Chung yang yen chin yüan li shih yü yen yen chiu so chi k'an (Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica), special publication, No. 27. Shanghai: Shang-wu yin-shu kuan, 1948; facsimile rpt. Hong Kong: Lung-men shu-tien, 1967.
Wang, Ch'ung-wu. “Tu Ming shih Ch'ao-hsien chuan.” Chung yang yen chiu yüan li shih yü yen yen chiu so chi k'an (Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica), 12 (1947).Google Scholar
Wang, Gungwu. “China and Southeast Asia, 1402–1424.” In Social history of China and Southeast Asia, ed. Chen, J. and Tarling, N.. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1970; rpt. in Community and nation: Essays on Southeast Asia and the Chinese, sel. Anthony Reid. Asian Studies Association of Australia, Southeast Asia Publication Series, No. 6. Singapore: Heinemann Educational Books (Asia), 1981.Google Scholar
Wang, Gungwu. “Early Ming relations with southeast Asia: A background essay.” In The Chinese world order: Traditional China's foreign relations, ed. Fairbank, John K.. Harvard East Asian Series, No. 32. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1968 ; rpt. in Community and nation: Essays on Southeast Asia and the Chinese, sel. Anthony Reid. Asian Studies Association of Australia, Southeast Asia Publication Series, No. 6. Singapore: Heinemann Educational Books (Asia), 1981.Google Scholar
Wang, I-t'ung. Official relations between China and Japan, 1368–1549. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1953.
Wang, Yü-ch'üan. Ming tai ti chün t'un. Peking: Chung-hua shu-chü, 1965.
Whitmore, John K. “Chiao-chih and Neo-Confucianism: The Ming attempt to transform Vietnam.” Ming Studies, 4 (Spring 1977).Google Scholar
Willets, William. “The maritime adventures of Grand Eunuch Ho.” Journal of Southeast Asian History, 5, No. 2 (September 1964).Google Scholar
Wu, Chi-hua. “Lun Chien-wen shih ti tsai fu chi ch'i tui Ming tai cheng chü ti ying hsiang.” Chung kuo li shih hsüeh hui shih hsüeh chi k'an, 1 (March 1969). Rpt. in his Ming tai chih tu shih lun ts'ung, Taipei: Hsüeh-sheng shu-chü, 1971, I.Google Scholar
Wu, Chi-hua. “Lun Ming tai ch'ien ch'i shui liang chung hsin chih chien shui pei ching chi ying hsiang.” Chung yang yen chiu yüan li shih yü yen yen chiu so chi k'an (Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica), 39 (October 1969). Rpt. in his Ming tai she hui ching chi shih lun ts'ung, Taipei: Hsüeh-sheng shu-chü, 1971, I.Google Scholar
Wu, Chi-hua. “Lun Ming tai shui liang chung hsin ti ti yü chi ch'i chung shui chih yu lai.” Chung yang yen chiu yüan li shih yü yen yen chiu so chi k'an (Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica), 38 (1968). Rpt. in his Ming tai she hui ching chi shih lun ts'ung, I.Google Scholar
Wu, Chi-hua. “Ming Jen-Hsüan shih nei ko chih tu chih pien yü huan kuan chien yüeh hsiang ch'üan chih huo.” Chung yang yen chiu yüan li shih yü yen yen chiu so chi k'an (Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, Ạcademia Sinica), 31 (1960). Rpt. in his Ming tai chih tu shih lun ts'ung, I.Google Scholar
Wu, Chi-hua. “Ming tai Chien-wen ti tsai ch'uan t'ung huang wei shang ti wen t'i.” Ta lu tsa chih, 19, No. 1 (July 1960) ; rpt. in his Ming tai chih tu shih lun ts'ung. Taipei: Hsüeh-sheng shu-chü, 1971, II.Google Scholar
Wu, Chi-hua. Ming tai hai yün chi yün ho ti yen chiu. Chung yang yen chiu yüan li shih yü yen yen chiu so, special publication No. 43. Taipei: Chung yang yen chiu yüan li shih yü yen yen chiu so, 1961.
Wu, Chi-hua. “Ming tai huang shih chung ti ch'ia ho yü tui li.” Chung yang yen chiu yüan li shih yü yen yen chiu so chi k'an (Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, Academiạ Sinica), 37 (1967). Rpt. in his Ming tai chih tu shih lun ts'ung, Taipei: Hsüeh-sheng shu-chü, 1971, II.Google Scholar
Wu, Han. Ch'ao-hsien Li ch'ao shih lu chung ti Chung-kuo shih liao. Peking: Sheng-huo tu-shu hsin-chih san-lien shu-tien, 1980.
Wu, Han. Chu Yüan-chang chuan. Shanghai, 1949; revised edition of 1965; rpt. Peking: Sheng-huo tu-shu hsin-chih san-lien shu-tien, 1979. (Earlier version Ts'ung seng po tao huang ch'üan. 1944)
Wu, Han. “Ming Ch'eng-tsu Jen-tsung Ching-ti chih ssu chi ch'i t'a.” Wen shih tsa chih, 2, No. 2 (March 1942), p..Google Scholar
Wu, Han. “Ming Ch'eng-tsu sheng mu k'ao.” Ch'ing-hua hsüeh pao, 10, No. 3 (July 1935).Google Scholar
Wu, Han. “Ming tai ching nan chih i yü kuo tu pei ch'ien.” Ch'ing-hua hsüeh pao, 10, No. 4 (October 1935).Google Scholar
Wu, Han. “Ming tai ti chin i wei ho tung-hsi ch'ang.” In his Teng hsia chi, Peking: Sheng-huo tu-shu hsin-chih san-lien shu-tien, 1961.Google Scholar
Wu, Han. “Ming tai ti chün ping.” In Tu shih cha chi. 1956; rpt. Peking: Sheng-huo tu-shu hsin-chih san-lien shu-tien, 1961.Google Scholar
Wu, Tan-ko. “Ming tai chung yeh ti fu shui kai ko ho she hui mao tun.” She hui k'o hsüeh chan hsien, 4 (November 1979).Google Scholar
Yamamoto, Tatsurō. Annanshi kenkyū. Tokyo: Yama-kawa shuppan kai, 1950, Vol. I.
Yang, Ch'i-ch'iao. “Ming ch'u jen ts'ai p'ei yang yü teng chin chih tu chi ch'i yen pien.” Hsin ya hsüeh pao, 6, No. 2 (August 1964).Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×