Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-r5fsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T16:33:33.906Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Section 3 - Cognitive and Social Factors

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 July 2020

Fanny M. Cheung
Affiliation:
The Chinese University of Hong Kong
Diane F. Halpern
Affiliation:
Claremont McKenna College, California
Get access

Summary

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Suggested Readings

To give readers a broad coverage of the field we suggest reading articles written from various perspectives. We hope that the contradictions in these readings will encourage readers to think critically about this controversial topic.

Diane F. Halpern is Professor of Psychology Emerita from Claremont McKenna College and Dean of Social Sciences Emerita from Minerva Schools at KGI. She has published many books and hundreds of journal articles on sex differences in cognitive abilities and critical thinking, and is the author of the Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment (HCTA). She is past president of the American Psychological Association, the Western Psychological Association, and the Society for the Teaching of Psychology. She was named the Federation of Associations in Behavioral & Brain Sciences (FABBS) Honored Scientist (IHO) “Who made important and lasting contributions to the science of mind, brain, and behavior.” www.fabbs.org/fabbs-foundation/honoring-our-scientists/honor-diane-f-ha/

Halpern was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In order to get a better understanding of psychology from numerous cultures, she taught courses (most of them a semester long) in Canada, Mexico, Turkey, Russia, China, and Portugal, among other places. Her parents immigrated to the United States to escape the dangerous growth of anti-Semitism in Europe. Her father was from Romania and her mother was from Poland. Her first language was Yiddish, which developed as a fusion of German, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Slavic languages. She has a racially mixed family.

Carmen Flores-Mendoza is a psychologist at Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil. She works on individual differences in intelligence and personality, especially in the Latin American context. Flores-Mendoza was born in Lima, Peru. In the 1980s, her family moved to Brazil to escape the armed conflict (internal war) between the government of Peru and the Communist Party of Peru (a terrorist group known as Shining Path). The armed conflict turned Peru into a country where it was not safe to live. Now she has two nationalities: Peruvian and Brazilian.  She attended University in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, and received her PhD from University of São Paulo. Her paternal grandmother was Chinese, and her paternal grandfather was indigenous Peruvian. Her maternal grandmother was “mulatto” (Black + White), and her maternal grandfather was a Spaniard (from Spain). So, Flores-Mendoza represents a mix of races.

Heiner Rindermann is a psychologist at TU Chemnitz, Germany, and works on education, ability development, intelligence, student achievement, economy and culture, and their interplay at the level of individuals and societies. Rindermann was born in Cologne, Germany, and grew up in Baden-Württemberg. He received his PhD from Heidelberg University. From 2008 to 2010, he was Professor of Evaluation and Methodology of Developmental Psychology at the University of Graz in Austria. He is a member of ISIR, APS, AEA, and Heterodox Academy. Science is for him an intellectual-philosophical task. He likes to walk, camp, and swim in the wilderness. He also likes to take photos (nature, architecture, art, people).

Ceci, S. J., Williams, W. M., & Barnett, S. M. (2009). Women’s underrepresentation in science: Sociocultural and biological considerations. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 218261. doi:10.1037/a0014412Google Scholar
Halpern, D. F. (2012). Sex differences in cognitive abilities (4th ed.). New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Johnson, W., Carothers, A., & Deary, I. J. (2008). Sex differences in variability in general intelligence: A new look at the old question. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 518531. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00096.xGoogle Scholar
Lynn, R., & Irwing, P. (2004). Sex differences on the progressive matrices: A meta-analysis. Intelligence, 32, 481498. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2004.06.008Google Scholar
Nyborg, H. (2003). Sex differences in g. In Nyborg, H. (Ed.), The scientific study of general intelligence: Tribute to Arthur R. Jensen (pp. 187222). Oxford: Pergamon.Google Scholar
Wai, J., Cacchio, M., Putallaz, M., & Makel, M.C. (2010). Sex differences in the right tail of cognitive abilities: A 30-year examination. Intelligence, 38, 412423. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2010.04.006Google Scholar

References

Allingham, R. R. (2008). Assessment of visual status of the Aeta, a hunter-gatherer population of the Philippines. Transactions of the American Ophthalmological Society, 106, 240251.Google Scholar
Arnett, A. B., Pennington, B. F., Peterson, R. L., Willcutt, E. G., DeFries, J. C., & Olson, R. K. (2017). Explaining the sex difference in dyslexia. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 58, 719727. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12691Google Scholar
Bassi, M., Busso, M., & Muñoz, J. S. (2013). Is the glass half empty or half full? School enrollment, graduation, and dropout rates in Latin America. www.iadb.org/en/research-and-data/publication-details-working-papers?pub_id=IDB-WP-462Google Scholar
Becker, D., & Rindermann, H. (2017). Cognitive sex differences: Evolution and history. Mankind Quarterly, 58, 8392.Google Scholar
Blinkhorn, S. (2005). A gender bender. Nature, 438, 3132. doi:10.1038/438031aGoogle Scholar
Braga, L. S., Flores-Mendoza, C., Barroso, S. M., Saldanha, R. S., Santos, M. T., Akama, C. T., & Reis, M. C. (2014). Diferenças de sexo em uma habilidade cognitiva específica e na produção científica [Sex Differences in a cognitive ability measure and in scientific production]. Psico-USF, 19(3), 477487. doi:10.1590/1413-82712014019003010Google Scholar
Cashdan, E., & Gaulin, S. J. (2016). Why go there? Evolution of mobility and spatial cognition in women and men. Human Nature, 27, 115. doi:10.1007/s12110–015-9253-4Google Scholar
Cavaco, S., Goncalves, A., Pinto, C., Almeida, E., Gomes, F., Moreira, I., … Teixeira-Pinto, A. (2015). Auditory verbal learning test in a large nonclinical Portuguese population. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 22, 321331. doi:10.1080/23279095.2014.927767Google Scholar
Ceci, S. J., Williams, W. M., & Barnett, S. M. (2009). Women’s underrepresentation in science: Sociocultural and biological considerations. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 218261. doi:10.1037/a0014412Google Scholar
Chuck, E. (2018). James Damore, Google engineer fired for writing manifesto on women’s “neuroticism,” sues company. www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/google-engineer-fired-writing-manifesto-women-s-neuroticism-sues-company-n835836.Google Scholar
Citeli, M. T. (2001). Fazendo diferenças: Teorias sobre gênero, corpo e comportamento. Estudos Feministas, 9(1), 131145. doi:10.1590/S0104–026X2001000100007Google Scholar
Cooper, C. (2015). Intelligence and human abilities. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Coutrot, A., Silva, R., Manley, E., de Cothi, W., Sami, S., Bohbot, V. D., … Spiers, H. J. (2018). Global determinants of navigation ability. Current Biology, 28(17), 28612866. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2018.06.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crow, J. F. (2002). Unequal by nature: A geneticist’s perspective on human differences. Dædalus, 131, 8188.Google Scholar
Damore, J. (2017). Google’s ideological echo chamber. firedfortruth.com/2017/08/08/first-blog-postGoogle Scholar
Daseking, M., Petermann, F., & Waldmann, H.-C. (2017). Sex differences in cognitive abilities: Analyses for the German WAIS-IV. Personality and Individual Differences, 114, 145150. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.04.003Google Scholar
Dawkins, R. (2008 [1982]). The extended phenotype: The long reach of the gene. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Eliez, S., Blasey, C. M., Freund, L. S., Hastie, T., & Reiss, A. L. (2001). Brain anatomy, gender, and IQ in children and adolescents with Fragile X syndrome. Brain, 124, 16101618. doi:10.1093/brain/124.8.1610Google Scholar
Ellis, L., Hershberger, S., Field, E., Wersinger, S., Pellis, S., Geary, D., … Karadi, K. (2008). Sex differences: Summarizing more than a century of scientific research. New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Fausto-Sterling, A. (2000). Sexing the body: Gender politics and the construction of sexuality. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Flore, P. C., & Wicherts, J. M. (2015). Does stereotype threat influence performance of girls in stereotyped domains? A meta-analysis. Journal of School Psychology, 53, 2544. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2014.10.002Google Scholar
Flores-Mendoza, C., Ardila, R., Rosas, R., Lucio, M. E., Gallegos, M., & Colareto, N. R. (2018). Intelligence measurement and school performance in Latin America. New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-89975-6Google Scholar
Flores-Mendoza, C., Widaman, K. F., Rindermann, H., Primi, R., Mansur-Alves, M., & Couto Pena, C. (2013). Cognitive sex differences in reasoning tasks: Evidence from Brazilian samples. Intelligence, 41, 7084. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2012.11.002Google Scholar
Flynn, J. R. (2017). Male and female balance sheet. Mankind Quarterly, 58, 4368.Google Scholar
Forstmeier, W. (2011). Women have relatively larger brains than men: A comment on the misuse of the general linear model in the study of sexual dimorphism. Anatomical Record, 294, 18561863. doi:10.1002/ar.21423Google Scholar
Geiser, C., Lehmann, W., & Eid, M. (2008). A note on sex differences in mental rotation in different age groups. Intelligence, 36, 556563. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2007.12.003Google Scholar
Guiso, L., Monte, F., Sapienza, P., & Zingales, L. (2008). Gender, culture, and math. Science, 320, 11641165. doi:10.1126/science.1154094Google Scholar
Halpern, D. F. (2012). Sex differences in cognitive abilities (4th ed.). New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Halpern, D. F., Benbow, C. P., Geary, D. C., Gur, R. C., Hyde, J. S., & Gernsbacher, M. A. (2007). The science of sex differences in science and mathematics. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 8, 151. doi:10.1111/j.1529-1006.2007.00032.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holden, M. P., Duff-Canning, S. J., & Hampson, E. (2015). Sex differences in the weighting of metric and categorical information in spatial location memory. Psychological Research, 79, 118. doi:10.1007/s00426–013-0539-zGoogle Scholar
Hunt, E. (2011). Human intelligence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Iliescu, D., Ilie, A., Ispas, D., Dobrean, A., & Clinciu, A. I. (2016). Sex differences in intelligence: A multi-measure approach using nationally representative samples from Romania. Intelligence, 58, 5461. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2016.06.007Google Scholar
Irwing, P., & Lynn, R. (2005). Sex differences in means and variability on the Progressive Matrices in university students: A meta-analysis. British Journal of Psychology, 96, 505524. doi:10.1348/000712605X53542Google Scholar
Jenson, A. R. (1998). The g factor: The science of mental ability. Westport, CT: Praeger.Google Scholar
Johnson, W., Carothers, A., & Deary, I. J. (2008). Sex differences in variability in general intelligence: A new look at the old question. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 518531. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00096.xGoogle Scholar
Jussim, L. (2012). Social perception and social reality: Why accuracy dominates bias and self-fulfilling prophecy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195366600.001.0001Google Scholar
Kaufman, S. B. (2007). Sex differences in mental rotation and spatial visualization ability: Can they be accounted for by differences in working memory? Intelligence, 35, 211223. Doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.07.009Google Scholar
Keiser, H. N., Sackett, P. R., Kuncel, N. R., & Brothen, T. (2016). Why women perform better in college than admissions scores would predict: Exploring the role of conscientiousness and course-taking patterns. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101, 569581. doi:10.1037/apl0000069Google Scholar
Keith, T. Z., Reynolds, M. R., Patel, P. G., & Ridley, K. P. (2008). Sex differences in latent cognitive abilities ages 6 to 59: Evidence from the Woodcock-Johnson III tests of cognitive abilities. Intelligence, 36, 502525. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2007.11.001Google Scholar
Lai, D., Tseng, Y., & Guo, H. (2011). Gender and geographic differences in developmental delays among young children: Analysis of the data from the national registry in Taiwan. Research In Developmental Disabilities, 32, 6369. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2010.08.012Google Scholar
Lai, D.-C., Tseng, Y.-C., Hou, Y.-M., & Guo, H. (2012). Gender and geographic differences in the prevalence of intellectual disability in children: Analysis of data from the national disability registry of TaiwanResearch In Developmental Disabilities33, 23012307. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2012.07.001Google Scholar
Lippa, R. A., Collaer, M. L., & Peters, M. (2010). Sex differences in mental rotation and line angle judgments are positively associated with gender equality and economic development across 53 nations. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 990997. doi:10.1007/s10508–008-9460-8Google Scholar
Loomes, R., Hull, L., & Mandy, W. P. L. (2017). What is the male-to-female ratio in autism spectrum disorder? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 56, 466474. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2017.03.013Google Scholar
Lovén, J., Rehnman, J., Wiens, S., Lindholm, T., Peira, N., & Herlitz, A. (2012). Who are you looking at? The influence of face gender on visual attention and memory for own- and other-race faces. Memory, 20, 321331. doi:10.1080/09658211.2012.658064Google Scholar
Lynn, R. (1994). Sex differences in brain size and intelligence: A paradox resolved. Personality and Individual Differences, 17, 257271. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(94)90030-2Google Scholar
Lynn, R. (2017). Sex differences in intelligence: The developmental theory. Mankind Quarterly, 58, 942.Google Scholar
Lynn, R., & Irwing, P. (2004). Sex differences on the progressive matrices: A meta-analysis. Intelligence, 32, 481498. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2004.06.008Google Scholar
Makel, M. C., Wai, J., Peairs, K. F., & Putallaz, M. (2016). Sex differences in the right tail of cognitive abilities: An update and cross cultural extension. Intelligence, 59, 815.doi:10.1016/j.intell.2016.09.003Google Scholar
Meisenberg, G. (2016). Gender differences in school achievement across cultures: An analysis of results from PISA 2000-2012. Mankind Quarterly, 57, 227251.Google Scholar
Miller, D. I., & Halpern, D. F. (2013). Can spatial training improve long-term outcomes for gifted STEM undergraduates? Learning and Individual Differences26 141152. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2012.03.012Google Scholar
Miller, D. I., & Halpern, D. F. (2014). The new science of cognitive sex differences. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18, 3745. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2013.10.011Google Scholar
Muller, C. B., Ride, S. M., Fouke, J., Whitney, T., Denton, D. D., Cantor, N., … Robinson, S. (2005). Gender differences and performance in science. Science, 307, 1043. doi:10.1126/science.307.5712.1043bGoogle Scholar
Murray, C. (2003). Human accomplishment: The pursuit of excellence in the arts and sciences, 800 B.C. to 1950. New York: HarperCollins.Google Scholar
Nyborg, H. (2003). Sex differences in g. In Nyborg, H. (Ed.), The scientific study of general intelligence: Tribute to Arthur R. Jensen. (pp. 187222). Oxford: Pergamon.Google Scholar
Nyborg, H. (2015). Sex differences across different racial ability levels. Intelligence, 52, 4462. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2015.04.005Google Scholar
O’Kelly, C. G. (1980). Women and men in society. New York: Van Nostrand.Google Scholar
Owen, L. (2005). Distorting the past: Gender and the division of labor in the European Upper Paleolithic. Tubingen: Kerns Verlag.Google Scholar
Parguliski, J. R., & Reynolds, M. R. (2017). Sex differences in achievement: Distributions matter. Personality and Individual Differences, 104, 272278. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.08.16Google Scholar
Parsons, T. D., Larson, P., Kratz, K., Thiebaux, M., Bluestein, B., Buckwalter, J. G., & Rizzo, A. A. (2004). Sex differences in mental rotation and spatial rotation in a virtual environment. Neuropsychologia, 42, 555562. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2003.08.014Google Scholar
Richardson, J. T. E. (1994). Gender differences in mental rotation. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, 435448. doi:10.2466/pms.1994.78.2.435Google Scholar
Rindermann, H. (2009). Emotionale-Kompetenz-Fragebogen (EKF). [Emotional-Competence-Questionnaire (EKF).] Göttingen: Hogrefe. doi:10.1017/9781107279339Google Scholar
Rindermann, H. (2018). Cognitive capitalism: Human capital and the wellbeing of nations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ritchie, S. (2015). Intelligence. London: John Murray.Google Scholar
Ritchie, S. J., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2018). How much does education improve intelligence? A meta-analysis. Psychological Science, 29, 13581369. doi:10.1177/0956797618774253Google Scholar
Romanoff, S. (1983). Women as hunters among the Matses of the Peruvian Amazon. Human Ecology, 11, 339343. doi:10.1007/BF00891379Google Scholar
Rustoyburu, C. (2012). Infancia, hormonas y género. Un análisis histórico de los discursos de la biotipología en Argentina en los años 1930. Sexualidad, Salud y Sociedad – Revista Latinoamericana, 11, 936.Google Scholar
Salzano, F. M., & Sans, M. (2014). Interethnic admixture and the evolution of Latin American populations. Genetics and Molecular Biology, 31, 1, 151170. doi:10.1590/S1415–47572014000200003Google Scholar
Saß, S., Kampa, N., & Köller, O. (2017). The interplay of g and mathematical abilities in large-scale assessments across grades. Intelligence, 63, 3344. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2017.05.001Google Scholar
Scarr, S., & McCartney, K. (1983). How people make their own environments: A theory of genotype → environment effects. Child Development, 54, 424435.Google Scholar
Singh, K. S. (2001). Gender roles in history: Women as hunters. Gender, Technology, and Development, 5, 113124. doi:10.1177/097185240100500105Google Scholar
Skarbrevik, K. J. (2010). Gender differences among students found eligible for special education. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 17, 97107, doi:10.1080/08856250210129038aGoogle Scholar
Stoet, G., & Geary, D. C. (2015). Sex differences in academic achievement are not related to political, economic, or social equality. Intelligence, 48, 137151. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2014.11.006Google Scholar
Stoet, G., & Geary, D. C. (2018). The gender-equality paradox in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics education. Psychological Science, 29, 581593. doi:10.1177/0956797617741719Google Scholar
Summers, L. H. (2005). Remarks at NBER conference on diversifying the science and engineering workforce. www.harvard.edu/president/speeches/summers_2005/nber.phpGoogle Scholar
Tang, H., Quertermous, T., Rodriguez, B., Kardia, S. L. R., Zhu, X., Brown, A., … Risch, N. J. (2005). Genetic structure, self-identified race/ethnicity, and confounding in case-control association studies. American Journal of Human Genetics, 76(2), 268275. doi:10.1086/427888Google Scholar
Thompson, A. E., & Voyer, D. (2014). Sex differences in the ability to recognise non-verbal displays of emotion: A meta-analysis. Cognition and Emotion, 28, 11641195. doi:10.1080/02699931.2013.875889Google Scholar
Uttal, D. H., Meadow, N. G., Tipton, E., Hand, L. L., Alden, A. R., Warren, C., & Newcombe, N. S. (2013). The malleability of spatial skills: A meta-analysis of training studies. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 352402. doi:10.1037/a0028446Google Scholar
Valtonen, R., Ahonen, T., Lyytinen, P., & Lyytinen, H. (2004). Co-occurrence of developmental delays in a screening study of 4-year-old Finnish children. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 46(7), 436443. doi:10.1017/S0012162204000726Google Scholar
Voyer, D., & Voyer, S. D. (2014). Gender differences in scholastic achievement: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 11741204. doi:10.1037/a0036620Google Scholar
Voyer, D., Voyer, S. D., & Saint-Aubin, J. (2017). Sex differences in visual-spatial working memory: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24, 307334. doi:10.3758/s13423–016-1085-7Google Scholar
Wai, J., Cacchio, M., Putallaz, M., & Makel, M.C. (2010). Sex differences in the right tail of cognitive abilities: A 30 year examination. Intelligence, 38, 412423. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2010.04.006Google Scholar
Wai, J., & Putallaz, M. (2011). The Flynn effect puzzle: A 30-year examination from the right tail of the ability distribution provides some missing pieces. Intelligence, 39, 443455. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2011.07.006Google Scholar
Wakabayashi, D., & Bowles, N. (2018). Google memo author sues, claiming bias against White conservative men. New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2018/01/08/technology/google-memo-discrimination-lawsuit.htmlGoogle Scholar

Suggested Readings

Joyce S. Pang is currently an Associate Professor of Psychology at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.  As a personality psychologist, she is interested in the assessment of individual differences and in making finer distinctions between personality dimensions in order to increase theoretical understanding of how personality affects behavior. Specifically, she adopts a person x situation perspective to understand how individual differences in motivation predict different reactions within different social contexts, which in turn lead to important personal and social outcomes.  She is particularly interested in the implicit motives for achievement, power, and affiliation: how to measure them, make differentiations between them, and determine how individual differences in these motives affect performance, health, and well-being. Pang was born and raised in Singapore. She attended Smith College in Massachusetts for her BA and obtained her PhD from University of Michigan.  She picked up Argentine tango in graduate school, and has danced ever since. After she obtained tenure, she took a short leave of absence to spend a couple months in Argentina learning more about the dance. She is currently living and working in Switzerland, and expects to be there for another two years.

Nicola Baumann is a Full Professor at the University of Trier, Germany. She did her diploma, PhD, and habilitation (the German postdoc qualification to gain tenure) at the University of Osnabrück. She has held research fellowships at the University of Rochester, New York (1999–2000), the Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand (2014–2015), and the University of Colorado at Boulder (2019). Baumann’s research on implicit motives, self-regulation, and self-determination is located at the intersection of personality, motivation, cognition, and social psychology. She investigates the “what” (what moves people to action) and “how” (how people regulate their action) of human goal striving from the broader perspective of Personality Systems Interactions (PSI) theory. In addition to her scientific achievements, she has worked as an applied psychologist and nurtures the exchange between research and practice.

Baumann was born and raised in Germany. She had four one-year stays abroad: 1983–1984 University High School of Northern Colorado, USA (at age 16); 1999–2000 University of Rochester, New York; 2014–2015 Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand; and 2019 University of Colorado at Boulder, Colorado. At the University of Osnabrück, there was a good mix of colleagues from the USA and Russia, allowing the integration of very different approaches to science.

Baumann, N., Chatterjee, M. B., & Hank, P. (2016). Guiding others for their own good: Action orientation is associated with prosocial enactment of the implicit power motive. Motivation and Emotion, 40, 5668. doi:10.1007/s11031-015-9511-0Google Scholar
Duncan, L. E., & Peterson, B. E. (2010). Gender and motivation for achievement, affiliation–intimacy, and power. In Chrisler, J. & McCreary, D. (Eds.), Handbook of gender research in psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 4162). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1467-5_3.Google Scholar
Kuhl, J. (2000). A functional-design approach to motivation and self-regulation: The dynamics of personality systems interactions. In Boekaerts, M., Pintrich, P. R., & Zeidner, M. (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 111169). San Diego: Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pang, J. S. (2019). Feedback as implicit motivational incentives: Approach and avoidant achievement motivated Singaporean university students’ responses to success versus failure feedback. In Liem, G. A. D. & Tan, S. H. (Eds.), Student motivation, engagement, and growth: Asian insights. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Shields, S. A. (2013). Gender and emotion: What we think we know, what we need to know, and why it mattersPsychology of Women Quarterly37(4), 423435doi:10.1177/0361684313502312Google Scholar
Wagner, L., Baumann, N., & Hank, P. (2016). Enjoying influence on others: Congruently high implicit and explicit power motives are related to teachers’ well-being. Motivation and Emotion, 40, 69–81. doi:10.1007/s11031-015-9516-8Google Scholar

References

Atkinson, J. W. (1957). Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior. Psychological Review, 64, 359372.Google Scholar
Atkinson, J. W., & Birch, D. (1970). The dynamics of action. Oxford: Wiley.Google Scholar
Baumann, N., Chatterjee, M. B., & Hank, P. (2016). Guiding others for their own good: Action orientation is associated with prosocial enactment of the implicit power motive. Motivation and Emotion, 40, 5668. doi:10.1007/s11031-015-9511-0Google Scholar
Baumann, N., Kaschel, R., & Kuhl, J. (2005). Striving for unwanted goals: Stress-dependent discrepancies between explicit and implicit achievement motives reduce subjective well-being and increase psychosomatic symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 781799. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.5.781Google Scholar
Baumann, N., Kazén, M., Quirin, M., & Koole, S. L. (Eds.). (2018). Why people do the things they do: Building on Julius Kuhl’s contributions to the psychology of motivation and volition. Göttingen: Hogrefe.Google Scholar
Baumann, N., & Kuhl, J. (2003). Self-infiltration: Confusing assigned tasks as self-selected in memory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 487 Götingen 497. doi:10.1177/0146167202250916Google Scholar
Baumann, N. & Scheffer, D. (2010). Seeing and mastering difficulty: The role of affective change in achievement flow. Cognition and Emotion, 24, 13041328. doi:10.1080/02699930903319911Google Scholar
Cervone, D. (2004). The architecture of personality. Psychological Review, 111, 183204.Google Scholar
Cervone, D. (2005). Personality architecture: Within-person structures and processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 423452.Google Scholar
Chaplin, T. M., & Aldao, A. (2013). Gender differences in emotion expression in children: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 735765. doi:10.1037/a0030737Google Scholar
Chatterjee, M. B., Baumann, N., Osborne, D., Mahmud, S. H., & Koole, S. L. (2018). Cross-cultural analysis of volition: Action orientation is associated with less anxious motive enactment and greater well-being in Germany, New Zealand, and Bangladesh. Frontiers in Psychology: Section Cultural Psychology. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01043CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chaplin, T. M., & Aldao, A. (2013). Gender differences in emotion expression in children: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 735765.  doi:10.1037/a0030737.Google Scholar
Chusmir, L. H. (1985). Motivation of managers: Is gender a factor? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9, 153159. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1985.tb00868.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colman, R., Hardy, S., Albert, M., Raffaelli, M., & Crockett, L. (2006). Early predictors of self-regulation in middle childhood. Infant and Child Development, 15, 421437. 10.1002/icd.469Google Scholar
Drescher, A., & Schultheiss, O. C. (2016). Meta-analytic evidence for higher implicit affiliation and intimacy motivation scores in women, compared to men. Journal of Research in Personality, 64, 110. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2016.06.019Google Scholar
Duncan, L. E., & Peterson, B. E. (2010). Gender and motivation for achievement, affiliation–intimacy, and power. In Chrisler, J. & McCreary, D. (Eds.), Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 4162). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1467-5_3Google Scholar
Elliot, A., Eder, A., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2013). Approach-avoidance motivation and emotion: Convergence and divergence. Emotion Review, 5(3), 308311. doi:308-311. 10.1177/1754073913477517Google Scholar
European Institute for Gender Equality. (2016). EIGE in brief 2017. https://eige.europa.eu/publications/european-institute-gender-equality-eige-brief-2017Google Scholar
Gelfand, M. J., Raver, R. L., Nishii, L., Leslie, L. M., Lun, J., Lim, B. C., & Van de Vliert, E. (2011). Differences between tight and loose cultures: A 33-nation studyScience332(6033), 11001104. doi:10.1126/science.1197754Google Scholar
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1997). Hostile and benevolent sexism: Measuring ambivalent sexist attitudes toward women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(1), 119135. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00104.xGoogle Scholar
Hautzinger, M. (1994). Action and state orientation in the context of psychopathological disorders. In Kuhl, J. & Beckmann, J. (Eds.), Volition and personality: Action versus state orientation (pp. 209213). Göttingen: Hogrefe & Huber.Google Scholar
Hayes, A. F. (2012). PROCESS: A versatile computational tool for observed variable mediation, moderation, and conditional process modeling [White paper]. www.afhayes.com/public/process2012.pdfGoogle Scholar
Hofer, J., & Busch, H. (2011). Interpersonal identity achievement accounts for the link between action control and self-informed realization of the implicit affiliation-intimacy motive. Identity, 11, 231246. doi:10.1080/15283488.2011.560813Google Scholar
Jaramillo, F., & Spector, P. E. (2004). The effect of action orientation on the academic performance of undergraduate marketing majors. Journal of Marketing Education, 26, 250260. doi:10.1177/0273475304268780Google Scholar
Jenkins, S. R. (1994). Need for power and women’s careers over 14 years: Structural power, job satisfaction, and motive change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 155165. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.66.1.155Google Scholar
Johnston, A. M. & Diekman, A. B. (2015). Pursuing desires rather than duties? The motivational content of gender stereotypes. Sex Roles, 73, 1628. Doi:10.1007/s11199-015-0494-9Google Scholar
Kaschel, R., & Kuhl, J. (2004). Motivational counseling in an extended functional context: Personality systems interaction theory and assessment. In Cox, W. M. & Klinger, E. (Eds.), Motivational counseling: Motivating people for change (pp. 99119). Chichester: Wiley.Google Scholar
Kim, J. L. S., & Choo, S. L. (2001). Work–family conflict of women entrepreneurs in SingaporeWomen in Management Review16(5), 204221, doi:10.1108/09649420110395692Google Scholar
Köllner, M. G., & Schultheiss, O. C. (2014). Meta-analytic evidence of low convergence between implicit and explicit measures of the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 826. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00826Google Scholar
Koole, S. (2009). The psychology of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Cognition and Emotion, 23, 441. doi:10.1080/02699930802619031Google Scholar
Kuhl, J. (1994). Action versus state orientation: Psychometric properties of the Action Control Scale (ACS-90). In Kuhl, J. & Beckmann, J. (Eds.), Volition and personality: Action versus state orientation (pp. 4759). Göttingen: Hogrefe & Huber.Google Scholar
Kuhl, J. (2000). A functional-design approach to motivation and self-regulation: The dynamics of personality systems interactions. In Boekaerts, M., Pintrich, P. R., & Zeidner, M. (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 111169). San Diego: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Kuhl, J. (2001). Motivation und Persönlichkeit: Interaktionen psychischer Systeme [Motivation and personality: Architectures of mood and mind]. Göttingen: Hogrefe.Google Scholar
Kuhl, J., & Baumann, N. (2000). Self-regulation and rumination: Negative affect and impaired self-accessibility. In Perrig, W. J. & Grob, A. (Eds.), Control of human behavior, mental processes, and consciousness (pp. 283305). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Kuhl, J., & Beckmann, J. (Eds.). (1994). Volition and personality: Action versus state orientation. Göttingen: Hogrefe.Google Scholar
Kuhl, J., & Helle, L. (1986). Motivational and volitional determinants of depression: The degenerated-intention hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 247251. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.95.3.247Google Scholar
Kuhl, J., & Henseler, W. (2004). Entwicklungsorientiertes Scanning (EOS) [Development-oriented scanning (EOS)]. In von Rosenstiel, L. & Erpenbeck, J. (Eds.), Handbuch der Kompetenzmessung (pp. 428453). Heidelberg: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag.Google Scholar
Kuhl, J., Kazen, M., & Koole, S. L. (2006). Putting self-regulation theory into practice: A user’s manualApplied Psychology55, 408418. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00260.xGoogle Scholar
Kuhl, J., Quirin, M., & Koole, S. L. (2015). Being someone: The integrated self as a neuropsychological system. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 9(3), 115132.Google Scholar
Kuhl, J., & Scheffer, D. (1999). Scoring manual for the Operant Multi-Motive Test (OMT). Osnabruück: University of Osnabruück.Google Scholar
Lee, S. K., Goh, C. B., & Fredriksen, B. (2008). Toward a better future: Education and training for economic development in Singapore since 1965. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Liesenfeld, K. (2014). Authentische Selbstentwicklung als Funktion von emotionaler Regulation und Kindheitsstress [Authentic self-development as a function of emotional regulation and childhood stress]. Unpublished dissertation, University of Osnabrück. http://d-nb.info/1075198186/04Google Scholar
Liesenfeld, K. (2018). The supportive role of fathers for children’s development of the authentic self: A view through the PSI lense. In Baumann, N., Kazén, M., Quirin, M., & Koole, S. (Eds.), Why people do the things they do: Building on Julius Kuhl’s contributions to the psychology of motivation and volition (pp. 375392). Göttingen: Hogrefe.Google Scholar
Mauzy, D. K., & Milne, R. S. (2002). Singapore politics under the People’s Action Party. London: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
McAdams, D. P. (1985). Power, intimacy, and the life story: Personological inquiries into identity. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press.Google Scholar
McClelland, D. C. (1975). Power: The inner experience. New York: Irvington.Google Scholar
McClelland, D. C. (1987). Human motivation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
McClelland, D. C., & Franz, C. E. (1992). Motivational and other sources of work accomplishments in mid-life: A longitudinal study. Journal of Personality, 60, 679707.Google Scholar
McClelland, D. C., Koestner, R., & Weinberger, J. (1989). How do self-attributed and implicit motives differ? Psychological Review, 96, 690702. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.96.4.690.Google Scholar
McClelland, D. C., Patel, V., Stier, D., & Brown, D. (1987). The relationship of affiliative arousal to dopamine release. Motivation and Emotion, 11, 5166. doi:10.1007/BF00992213Google Scholar
McClelland, D. C., & Pilon, D. A. (1983). Sources of adult motives in patterns of parent behavior in early childhoodJournal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(3), 564574.Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomyPsychological Review, 100(4), 674701. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.100.4.674Google Scholar
Moran, C. M., Diefendorff, J. M., & Greguras, G. J. (2013). A comparison of emotional display rules at work and outside of work: A multinational investigation. Motivation and Emotion, 37, 323334.Google Scholar
Mowrer, O. H. (1960). Learning theory and behavior. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Mukhopadhaya, P. (2001). Changing labor-force gender composition and male–female income diversity in Singapore. Journal of Asian Economics, 12(4), 547568, doi:10.1016/S1049–0078(01)00102-6.Google Scholar
Nolen‐Hoeksema, S., & Jackson, B. (2001). Mediators of the gender difference in rumination. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25, 3747. doi:10.1111/1471-6402.00005Google Scholar
Pang, J. S. (2019). Feedback as implicit motivational incentives: Approach and avoidant achievement motivated Singaporean university students’ responses to success versus failure feedback. In Liem, G. A. D. & Tan, S. H. (Eds.), Student motivation, engagement, and growth: Asian insights. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Pang, J. S., & Schultheiss, O. C. (2005). Assessing implicit motives in U.S. college students: Effects of picture type and position, gender and ethnicity, and cross-cultural comparisonsJournal of Personality Assessment, 85(3), 280294. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa8503_04Google Scholar
Ramsay, J. E., & Pang, J. S. (2014). A simplified measure for the assessment of approach- and avoidance-related implicit achievement motivation. Unpublished.Google Scholar
Rodan, G. (1992). Singapore’s leadership transition: Erosion or refinement of authoritarian rule? Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, 24(1), 317.Google Scholar
Schlüter, C., Fraenz, C., Pinnow, M., Voelkle, M. C., Güntürkün, O., & Genç, E. (2017). Volition and academic achievement: Interindividual differences in action control mediate the effects of conscientiousness and sex on secondary school grading. Motivation Science. Advance online publication. doi:10.1037/mot0000083Google Scholar
Schultheiss, O. C. (2008). Implicit motives. In John, O. P., Robins, R. W., & Pervin, L. A. (Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 603633). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Schultheiss, O. C., & Brunstein, J. C. (2001). Assessment of implicit motives with a research version of the TAT: Picture profiles, gender differences, and relations to other personality measures. Journal of Personality Assessment, 77, 7186. doi:10.1207/S15327752JPA7701_05.Google Scholar
Schultheiss, O. C., & Pang, J. S. (2007). Measuring implicit motives. In Robins, R. W., Fraley, R. C., & Krueger, R. (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in personality psychology (pp. 322344). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Shields, S. A. (2013). Gender and emotion: What we think we know, what we need to know, and why it mattersPsychology of Women Quarterly37(4), 423435doi:10.1177/0361684313502312Google Scholar
Spangler, W. D. (1992). Validity of questionnaire and TAT measures of need for achievement: Two meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 140152. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.140.Google Scholar
Thrash, T. M., & Elliot, A. J. (2002). Implicit and self-attributed achievement motives: Concordance and predictive validity. Journal of Personality, 70, 729755. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.05022Google Scholar
VandeWalle, D., Cron, W. L., & Slocum, J. W. (2001). The role of goal orientation following performance feedback. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 629640. doi:10.1037//0021-9010.86.4.629Google Scholar
Veroff, J., Depner, C., Kulka, R., & Douvan, E. (1980). Comparison of American motives: 1957 versus 1976Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(6), 12491262.Google Scholar
Veroff, J., Reuman, D., & Feld, S. (1984). Motives in American men and women across the adult life spanDevelopmental Psychology, 20(6), 1142-1158.Google Scholar
Wagner, L., Baumann, N., & Hank, P. (2016). Enjoying influence on others: Congruently high implicit and explicit power motives are related to teachers’ well-being. Motivation and Emotion, 40, 6981. doi:10.1007/s11031-015-9516-8Google Scholar
Winter, D. G. (1973). The power motive. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Winter, D. G. (1988). The power motive in women – and menJournal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(3), 510519.Google Scholar
Winter, D. G. (1994). Manual for scoring motive imagery in running text (version 4.2). Ann Arbor: Department of Psychology, University of Michigan.Google Scholar
Winter, D. G., & Barenbaum, N. B. (1985). Responsibility and the power motive in women and menJournal of Personality, 53(2), 335355.Google Scholar
Winter, D., John, O., Stewart, A., Klohnen, E., & Duncan, L. (1998). Traits and motives: Toward an integration of two traditions in personality research. Psychological Review, 105, 230250doi:10.1037/0033-295X.105.2.230Google Scholar
World Bank. (2017). GDP per capita, PPP (current international $), International Comparison Program database.Google Scholar
World Health Organization: Regional Office for Europe. (1998). Well-being measures in primary health care: The DepCare Project. Consensus Meeting, Stockholm, Sweden.Google Scholar
Yarrow, J. (2012). Sheryl Sandberg’s Full HBS Speech: Get On a Rocketship Whenever You Get the Chance. www.businessinsider.com/sheryl-sandbergs-full-hbs-speech-get-on-a-rocketship-whenever-you-get-the-chance-2012-5?IR=TGoogle Scholar
Yeoh, B., Huang, S., & Willis, K. (2000). Global cities, transnational flows and gender dimensions: The view from Singapore. Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, 91, 147158. doi:10.1111/1467-9663.00102Google Scholar

Suggested Readings

Sumaya Laher is an Associate Professor in Psychology at the University of the Witwatersrand. Her doctoral and subsequent research into personality, psychometrics, and assessment has been instrumental in pioneering the usage and interpretation of key instruments in South Africa. Aside from psychological assessment, she contributes actively to research on indigenous knowledge systems with her work on traditional healing systems particularly those proposed by Islam, Hinduism, and African approaches. Laher is a South African Muslim woman born in Johannesburg, and completed her undergraduate and doctoral studies at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg.

Fanny M. Cheung is Choh-ming Li Professor of Psychology and Vice-President (Research) at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. Her research expertise lies in cross-cultural personality assessment. She pioneered gender research in Greater China and served as the Founding Chairperson of the Equal Opportunities Commission in Hong Kong. She received the 2014 IAAP Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award and 2012 APA Award for Distinguished Contributions to the International Advancement of Psychology for her contributions to personality assessment across cultures and to the international advancement of women. Cheung was born in Hong Kong and studied in the United States for nine years from Grade 12 through her PhD degree. She returned to work in Hong Kong after her studies, and has spent sabbaticals in Oxford (UK) and the United States.

Pia Zeinoun is an Assistant Professor of Psychology at the American University of Beirut’s Department of Psychology, and is Managing Director of the Psychological Assessment Center at the AUB Medical Center. Her research centers on the development of culturally appropriate tests of personality, psychopathology, and neurocognitive abilities. Dr. Zeinoun has a PhD in Psychology from Tilburg University in the Netherlands, and advanced graduate training at the Johns Hopkins/Kennedy Krieger Institute in Maryland, USA. Zeinoun was born in Lebanon, but sought refuge in Cyprus with her family during the Lebanese Civil War. After spending ten years in Cyprus, where Greek became her native language, she returned to Lebanon as a teenager.  It was only then that she learned English at an American-system school, and Arabic as a second language. She has now settled in her diverse country of origin, Lebanon.

Cheung, F. M. (2012). Mainstreaming culture in psychology. American Psychologist, 67, 721730. doi:10.1037/a0029876Google Scholar
Choo, H. Y., & Feree, M. M. (2010). Practicing intersectionality in sociological research: A critical analysis of inclusions, interactions and institutions in the study of inequalities. Sociological Theory, 28, 129149. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9558.2010.01370.xGoogle Scholar
Daouk-Öyry, L., Zeinoun, P., Choueiri, L., & van de Vijver, F. (2016). Integrating global and local perspectives in psycholexical studies: A GloCal approach. Journal of Research in Personality, 62, 1928. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2016.02.008.Google Scholar
Hyde, J. S. (2014). Gender similarities and differences. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 373398. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.115.2.291Google Scholar
Mac Giolla, E., & Kajonius, P. J. (2018). Sex differences in personality are larger in gender equal countries: Replicating and extending a surprising finding. International Journal of Psychology, 53. doi:10.1002/ijop.12529Google Scholar
McCall, L. (2005). The complexity of intersectionality. SIGNS: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 30(3), 17711800. doi:10.1086/426800Google Scholar
Schmitt, D. P., Long, A. E., McPhearson, A., O’Brien, K., Remmert, B., & Shah, S. H. (2017). Personality and gender differences in global perspective. International Journal of Psychology, 52, 4556. doi:10.1002/ijop.12265Google Scholar

References

Allik, J., & McCrae, R. R. (2004). Toward a geography of personality traits: Patterns of profiles across 36 cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35, 1328. doi:10.1177/0022022103260382Google Scholar
Allison, R., & Banerjee, P. (2014). Intersectionality and Social Location in Organization Studies, 1990–2009Race, Gender & Class21(3/4), 6787. www.jstor.org/stable/43496985Google Scholar
American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, and the National Council on Measurement in Education. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
American Psychological Association. (2015). APA dictionary of psychology (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., & de Vries, R. E. (2014). The HEXACO Honesty-Humility, Agreeableness, and Emotionality factors: A review of research and theory. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 18, 139152. doi:10.1177/1088868314523838Google Scholar
Barbarovic, T., & Sverko, I. (2013). The HEXACO Personality Domains in the Croatian sample. Drustvena Istrazivanja, 22, 397411. doi:10.5559/di.22.3.01Google Scholar
Bernstein, C., & Osman, R. (2016). Positives and negatives: Reconceptualising gender attributes within the context of the sex role identity and well-being literature: An examination within the South African contextSouth African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 42, 112. doi:10.4102/sajip.v42i1.1309.Google Scholar
Bodas, J., & Ollendick, T. H. (2005). Test anxiety: A crosscultural perspective. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8, 6588. doi:10.1007/s10567-005-2342-xGoogle Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Cheung, F. M. (2012). Mainstreaming culture in psychology. American Psychologist, 67, 721730. doi:10.1037/a0029876Google Scholar
Cheung, F. M., Cheung, S. F., & Fan, W. Q. (2013). From Chinese to cross-cultural personality assessment: A combined emic–etic approach to study personality in culture. In Gelfand, M., Hong, Y. Y., & Chiu, C. Y. (Eds.), Advances in psychology and culture (Vol. 3, pp. 117178). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Cheung, F. M., Cheung, S. F., Zhang, J. X., Leung, K., Leong, F. T. L., & Yeh, K. H. (2008). Relevance of openness as a personality dimension in Chinese culture. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 39, 81108. doi:10.1177/0022022107311968.Google Scholar
Cheung, F. M., Leung, K., Fan, R., Song, W. Z., Zhang, J. X., & Zhang, J. P. (1996). Development of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI). Journal of Cross‑Cultural Psychology, 27, 181199. doi:10.1177/0022022196272003Google Scholar
Cheung, F. M., Leung, K., Zhang, J. X., Sun, H. F., Gan, Y. Q., Song, W. Z., & Xie, D. (2001). Indigenous Chinese personality construct: Is the Five Factor Model complete? Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32, 407433. doi:10.1177/0022022101032004003Google Scholar
Cheung, F. M., Zhang, J. X., & Song, W. Z. (2003). Manual of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) Chinese editionHong Kong: The Chinese University Press.Google Scholar
Choo, H. Y., & Feree, M. M. (2010). Practicing intersectionality in sociological research: A critical analysis of inclusions, interactions and institutions in the study of inequalities. Sociological Theory, 28, 129149. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9558.2010.01370.xGoogle Scholar
Costa, P. T. Jr., Terracciano, A., & McCrae, R. R. (2001). Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: Robust and surprising findings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(2), 322331. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.2.322.Google Scholar
Daouk-Öyry, L., Zeinoun, P., Choueiri, L., & van de Vijver, F. (2016). Integrating global and local perspectives in psycholexical studies: A GloCal approach. Journal of Research in Personality, 62, 1928. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2016.02.008.Google Scholar
Deaux, K. (1985). Sex and gender. Annual Review of Psychology, 36, 4981 doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.36.020185.000405Google Scholar
De Bolle, M., De Fruyt, F., McCrae, R. R., Löckenhoff, C. E., Costa Jr., P. T., Aguilar-Vafaie, M. E., … Terracciano, A. (2015). The emergence of sex differences in personality traits in early adolescence: A cross-sectional, cross-cultural study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 108, 171185. doi:10.1037/a0038497Google Scholar
Ellis, A., Abrams, M., & Abrams, L. D. (2009). Personality theories: Critical perspectives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Ellis, L. (2011). Identifying and explaining apparent universal sex differences in cognition and behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 51, 552561. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.04.004Google Scholar
Feingold, A. (1994). Gender differences in personality: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 429456. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.116.3.429Google Scholar
Fiske, A. P. (2002). Using individualism and collectivism to compare cultures – A critique of the validity and measurement of the constructs: Comment on Oyserman et al. (2002). Psychological Bulletin, 128, 7888. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.1.78Google Scholar
Foxcroft, C., & Roodt, G. (2013). An introduction to psychological assessment in the South African context. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Goldberg, L. R. (1999). A broad-bandwidth, public domain, personality inventory measuring the lower-level facets of several five-factor models. In I. Mervielde, I. Deary, F. De Fruyt, & Ostendorf, F. (Eds.), Personality psychology in Europe (Vol. 7, pp. 728). Tilburg: Tilburg University Press.Google Scholar
Heine, S. J., & Buchtel, E. E. (2009). Personality: The universal and the culturally specific. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 369394. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163655Google Scholar
Hines, M. (2011). Gender development and the human brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 34, 6988. doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-061010-113654Google Scholar
Hines, M., Brook, C., & Conway, G. S. (2004). Androgen and psychosexual development: Core gender identity, sexual orientation, and recalled childhood gender role behavior in women and men with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Journal of Sex Research, 41(1), 7581. doi: 10.1080/00224490409552215Google Scholar
Hopcroft, R. L., & McLaughlin, J. (2012).Why is the sex gap in feelings of depression wider in high gender equity countries? The effect of children on the psychological well-being of men and women. Social Science Research, 41, 501513. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.12.006Google Scholar
Hyde, J. S. (2005). The gender similarities hypothesis. American Psychologist, 60, 581592. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.60.6.581Google Scholar
Hyde, J. S. (2014). Gender similarities and differences. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 373398. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115057Google Scholar
Hyde, J. S., Mezulis, A. H., & Abramson, L. Y. (2008). The ABCs of depression: Integrating affective, biological, and cognitive models to explain the emergence of the gender difference in depression. Psychological Review, 115, 291313. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.115.2.291Google Scholar
Johnson, D. P., & Whisman, M. A. (2013). Gender differences in rumination: A meta-analysis. Personality and IndividualDifferences, 55, 367374. doi:10.1016%2Fj.paid.2013.03.019Google Scholar
Kajonius, P., & Mac Giolla, E (2017). Personality traits across countries: Support for similarities rather than differences. PLoS One, 12(6), e0179646. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0179646Google Scholar
Katigbak, M. S., Somer, O., Szarota, P., Szirmák, Z., & Zhou, X. (2014), Basic Bivariate Personality Structure. Journal of Personality, 82, 114. doi:10.1111/jopy.12028Google Scholar
Kim, U., Yang, K. S., & Hwang, K. K. (2006). Indigenous and cultural psychology: Understanding people in context. New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/0-387-28662-4Google Scholar
Laher, S. (2013). Understanding the Five Factor Model and Five Factor Theory through a South African Cultural Lens. South African Journal of Psychology, 43, 208221. doi:10.1177%2F0081246313483522Google Scholar
Laher, S. (2015). Exploring the utility of the CPAI-2 in a South African sample: Implications for the FFM. Personality and Individual Differences, 81, 6175. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.12.010Google Scholar
Laher, S., & Cockcroft, K. (2014). Psychological assessment in post-apartheid South Africa: The way forward. doi:10.1177%2F0081246314533634Google Scholar
Laher, S., & Croxford, S. (2013). Men are from Mars, women are from Venus: Exploring gender differences in personality in the South African context. South African Journal of Human Resource Management 11, 499. 8 pages. doi:10.4102/sajhrm.v11i1.499.Google Scholar
Lee, K., & Ashton, M. C. (2008). The HEXACO Personality Factors in the Indigenous Personality Lexicons of English and 11 other languages. Journal of Personality, 76(5), 10011053. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00512.xGoogle Scholar
Lippa, R. A. (2010). Sex differences in personality traits and gender-related occupational preferences across 53 nations: Testing evolutionary and social-environmental theories. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39(3), 619636. doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9380-7Google Scholar
Löckenhoff, C. E., Chan, W., McCrae, R. R., De Fruyt, F., Jussim, L., De Bolle, M., … Terracciano, A. (2014). Gender stereotypes of personality: Universal and accurate? Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology45(5), 675694. doi:10.1177/0022022113520075Google Scholar
Luyten, P., & Blatt, S. J. (2013). Interpersonal relatedness and self-definition in normal and disrupted personality development: Retrospect and prospect. American Psychologist, 68, 172183. doi:10.1037/a0032243Google Scholar
Lynn, R., & Martin, T. (1997). Gender differences in extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism in 37 countries. Journal of Social Psychology, 137, 369373. doi:10.1080/00224549709595447Google Scholar
Mac Giolla, E., & Kajonius, P. J. (2018). Sex differences in personality are larger in gender equal countries: Replicating and extending a surprising finding. International Journal of Psychology, 53. doi:10.1002/ijop.12529Google Scholar
Maheshwari, N., & Kumar, V. (2008). Personal effectiveness as a function of psychological androgyny. Industrial Psychiatry Journal, 17, 3945.Google Scholar
Martin, C. L., & Ruble, D. N. (2010). Patterns of gender development. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 353381 doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100511Google Scholar
McCall, L. (2005). The complexity of intersectionality. SIGNS: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 30(3),17711800. doi:10.1086/426800Google Scholar
McCrae, R. R. (1996). Social consequences of experiential openness. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 323337. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.120.3.323Google Scholar
McCrae, R. R. (2001). Trait psychology and culture: Exploring intercultural comparisons. Journal of Personality, 69, 819846.Google Scholar
McCrae, R. R. (2004). Human nature and culture: A trait perspective. Journal of Research in Personality, 38, 314. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2003.09.009Google Scholar
McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. Jr. (1996). Toward a new generation of personality theories: Theoretical contexts for the Five-Factor Model. In Wiggins, J. S. (Ed.), The five-factor model of personality: Theoretical perspectives (pp. 5187). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
McCrae, R. R., & Costa, (2003). Personality in adulthood: A Five-Factor Theory perspective (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. doi:10.4324/9780203428412Google Scholar
McCrae, R. R., & Costa, (2008a). Empirical and theoretical status of the Five Factor Model of personality traits. In Boyle, G. J., Matthews, G., & Saklofske, D. H. (Eds.), The Sage handbook of personality theory and assessment (pp. 273294). London: Sage. doi:10.1080/10478401003648773Google Scholar
McCrae, R. R., & Costa, (2008b). The Five Factor Theory of personality. In John, O. P., Robins, R. W., & Pervin, L. A. (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 157180). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
McCrae, R. R., Terracciano, A., & 79 members of the Personality Profiles of Cultures Project. (2005a). Universal features of personality traits from the observer’s perspective: Data from 50 cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 547561. doi:1037/0022-3514.88.3.547Google Scholar
McCrae, R. R., Terracciano, A., 78 members of the Personality Profiles of Cultures Project. (2005b). Personality profiles of cultures: Aggregate personality traits. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 407425. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.407Google Scholar
Nel, J. A., Valchev, V. H., Rothmann, S., van de Vijver, F. J. R., Meiring, D., & De Bruin, G. P. (2012). Exploring the personality structure in the 11 languages of South Africa. Journal of Personality, 80, 915948. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00751.xGoogle Scholar
Okeke, B. I., Draguns, J. G., Sheku, B., & Allen, W. (1999). Culture, self and personality in Africa. In Lee, Y. T., McCauley, C. R., & Draguns, J. G. (Eds.), Personality and person perception across cultures (pp. 139162). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Piff, P. K. (2014). Wealth and the inflated self: Class, entitlement, and narcissism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40, 3443. doi:10.1177%2F0146167213501699Google Scholar
Russo, N. F., & Green, B. L. (1993). Women and mental health. In Denmakr, F. L. & Paludi, M. A. (Eds.), Psychology of women: A handbook of issues and theories (pp. 379436). Westport, CT: Greenwood.Google Scholar
Ryckman, R. (2008). Theories of personality (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.Google Scholar
Samuel, D. B., Ansell, E. B., Hopwood, C. J., Morey, L. C., Markowitz, J. C., Skodol, A. E., & Grilo, C. M. (2010). The impact of NEO PI-R gender-norms on the assessment of personality disorder profiles. Psychological Assessment, 22(3), 539545. doi:10.1037/a0019580Google Scholar
Saucier, G., Thalmayer, A. G., Payne, D. L., Carlson, R. , Sanogo, L., Ole‐Kotikash, L., … Zhou, X. (2014). A basic bivariate structure of personality attributes evident across nine languagesJournal of Personality, 82(1), 114. doi:10.1111/jopy.12028Google Scholar
Schmitt, D. P., Long, A. E., McPhearson, A., O’Brien, K., Remmert, B., & Shah, S. H. (2017). Personality and gender differences in global perspective. International Journal of Psychology, 52, 4556. doi:10.1002/ijop.12265Google Scholar
Schultz, P., & Schultz, S. E. (2017). Theories of personality (11th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.Google Scholar
Stake, J. E., & Eisele, H. (2010). Gender and personality. In Chrisler, J. C. & McCreary, D. R. ( Eds.), Handbook of gender research in psychology (pp. 1940). Berlin: Springer. doi:10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1467-5_2Google Scholar
Stewart, A., & McDermott, C. (2004). Gender in psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 519–44. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141537Google Scholar
Thalmayer, A. G. (2018). Personality structure in Africa: Lexical studies of personality in Maa, Senufo, and Khoekhoe. Paper presented at the Tilburg Conference on Methods and Culture in Psychology, Tilburg University, June 15, 2018.Google Scholar
Thalmayer, A., & Saucier, G. (2014). The questionnaire Big Six in 26 nations: Developing cross-culturally applicable Big Six, Big Five and Big Two inventories. European Journal of Personality. 28, 482496. doi:10.1002/per.1969Google Scholar
Twenge, J. M., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2002). Age, gender, race, socio-economic status, and birth cohort differences on the Children’s Depression Inventory: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 578588.Google Scholar
Valchev, V. H., van de Vijver, F. J. R., Meiring, D., Nel, J. A., Hill, C., Laher, S., & Adams, B. G. (2014). Beyond agreeableness: Social–relational personality concepts from an indigenous and cross-cultural perspective. Journal of Research in Personality, 48, 17–32. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2013.10.003Google Scholar
Valchev, V., van de Vijver, F., Nel, A., Rothmann, S., & Meiring, D. (2013). The use of traits and contextual information in free personality descriptions across ethnocultural groups in South Africa. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104, 10771091. doi 10.1037/a0032276Google Scholar
Woodhill, B. M., & Samuels, C. A. (2004). Desirable and undesirable androgyny: A prescription for the twenty-first century. Journal of Gender Studies, 13, 1528. doi:10.1080/0958923032000184943Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (2015). WHO Gender Fact Sheet. www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/genderGoogle Scholar
Zeinoun, P., Daouk-Öyry, L., Choueiri, L., & van de Vijver, F. J. (2017). A mixed-methods study of personality conceptions in the Levant: Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and the West Bank. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(3), 453. doi:10.1037/pspp0000148.Google Scholar
Zeinoun, P., Daouk-Öyry, L., Choueiri, L., & van de Vijver, F. J. (2018). Arab‐Levantine personality structure: A psycholexical study of modern standard Arabic in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and the West Bank. Journal of Personality, 86(3), 397421.Google Scholar

Suggested Readings

Algae K. Y. Au was born and raised in Hong Kong. She is currently a PhD candidate in the Department of Applied Social Sciences at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. During her undergraduate studies, she was a first-class honors student, a two-time winner of the Scholarship for Outstanding Students, and a recipient of the Outstanding Thesis Award in Psychology, and she was included on the Dean’s Honors List. Her research interests include bilingualism, biculturalism, and intercultural relationships, which have also been the major areas of her publications in the past few years. Guided by her current interest in ecopsychology, her doctoral thesis focuses on the effects of ecological self-construal on psychological and pro-environmental outcomes.

Sylvia Xiaohua Chen is a Professor in the Department of Applied Social Sciences at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. Her research interests include the social psychology of bilingualism and biculturalism, personality and social behavior in cultural contexts, cultural diversity and mental health, and, more recently, globalization and multiculturalism. She served as an Associate Editor of Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology and Asian Journal of Social Psychology. She was a recipient of an Early Career Award conferred by the International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology, Michael Harris Bond Award for Early Career Research Contributions, and Jung-heun Park Young Scholar Award conferred by the Asian Association of Social Psychology. Chen was born in Guangzhou, China and grew up there. She attended college at Sun Yat-Sen University in Guangzhou, and obtained her MA at Santa Clara University in the USA, where she studied and worked for six years. Then she studied for an MPhil and PhD at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. She has remained in Hong Kong for over 20 years. As a social and cultural psychologist, she believes she is influenced by Hong Kong, Mainland Chinese, and American cultures.

Susan E. Cross is a faculty member of the Department of Psychology at Iowa State University.  Her current research focuses on the intersection of culture, self, and close relationships.  Specifically, she studies how concerns for honor motivate behavior in cultures such as Turkey and southern regions of the USA (funded by the US National Science Foundation).  She is also curious about how cultural values, norms, and beliefs influence conceptions of close relationships in East Asian contexts.  Her background is eclectic, with degrees in Horticulture and Higher Education, but she found her way to a PhD program at the University of Michigan, where she had the privilege of working with Professor Hazel Markus. She is thankful every day for the opportunity to pursue interesting questions with students and postdoctoral scholars from around the world.  Cross was born and raised in Texas, by two natives of the US South. She considers herself a product of an honor culture. When she was a senior in college, her father moved first to Saudi Arabia (for three years) and then to Tokyo (for three years). Visiting these countries sparked her interest in culture, in part because, although both countries were collectivist, non-Western contexts, they differed greatly from each other. Cross is a motherless woman, who has valued the presence of women friends, aunts, and others who filled in the gap for her. She identifies as a Christian; a White woman married to a Hispanic man; a Texan/ Southerner; a mother of boys; a gardener; and many other things.

Brewer, M. B., & Gardner, W. (1996). Who is this “We”? Levels of collective identity and self representations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 8393.Google Scholar
Cross, S. E., Bacon, P. L., & Morris, M. L. (2000). The relational-interdependent self-construal and relationshipsJournal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 791808.Google Scholar
Cross, S. E., & Madson, L. (1997b). Models of the self: Self-construals and genderPsychological Bulletin, 122, 537.Google Scholar
Kashima, Y., Yamaguchi, S., Kim, U., Choi, S.-C., Gelfand, M. J., & Yuki, M. (1995). Culture, gender, and self: A perspective from individualism-collectivism research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 925937.Google Scholar
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivationPsychological Review, 98, 224253.Google Scholar
Markus, H., & Oyserman, D. (1989). Gender and thought: The role of the self-concept. In Crawford, M. & Gentry, M. (Eds.), Gender and thought: Psychological perspectives (pp. 100127). New York: Springer.Google Scholar

References

Alden, L. E., Mellings, T., & Ryder, A. G. (2001). Social anxiety, social phobia, and the self. In Hofmann, S. G. & DiBartolo, P. M. (Eds.), From social anxiety to social phobia: Multiple perspectives (pp. 304320). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.Google Scholar
Archer, J., & Coyne, S. M. (2005). An integrated review of indirect, relational, and social aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9, 212230.Google Scholar
Aron, A., Aron, E. N., Tudor, M., & Nelson, G. (1991). Close relationships as including other in the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 241253.Google Scholar
Bacon, P. L. (1996). The impact of the interdependent self-construal on downward comparison. Master’s thesis, Iowa State University,Google Scholar
Baken, D. (1966). The duality of human existence: Isolation and communion in Western man. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., & Sommer, K. L. (1997). What do men want? Gender differences and two spheres of belongingness: Comment on Cross and Madson (1997). Psychological Bulletin, 122, 3844.Google Scholar
Beach, S. R., Katz, J., Kim, S., & Brody, G. H. (2003). Prospective effects of marital satisfaction on depressive symptoms in established marriages: A dyadic model. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 20, 355371.Google Scholar
Berkel, L. A., & Constantine, M. G. (2005). Relational variables and life satisfaction in African American and Asian American college women. Journal of College Counseling, 8, 513.Google Scholar
Best, D. L. (2001). Gender concepts: Convergence in cross-cultural research and methodologies. Cross-Cultural Research, 35, 2343.Google Scholar
Block, C. J., Koch, S. M., Liberman, B. E., Merriweather, T. J., & Roberson, L. (2011). Contending with stereotype threat at work: A model of long-term responses 1Ψ7. Counseling Psychologist, 39, 570600.Google Scholar
Brewer, M. B., & Chen, Y.-R. (2007). Where (who) are collectives in collectivism? Toward conceptual clarification of individualism and collectivism. Psychological Review, 114, 133151.Google Scholar
Brewer, M. B., & Gardner, W. (1996). Who is this “We”? Levels of collective identity and self representations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 8393.Google Scholar
Burgess, D. J., Joseph, A., Van Ryn, M., & Carnes, M. (2012). Does stereotype threat affect women in academic medicine? Academic Medicine, 87, 506512.Google Scholar
Caldwell, M. A., & Peplau, L. A. (1982). Sex differences in same-sex friendship. Sex Roles, 8, 721732.Google Scholar
Card, N. A., Stucky, B. D., Sawalani, G. M., & Little, T. D. (2008). Direct and indirect aggression during childhood and adolescence: A meta‐analytic review of gender differences, intercorrelations, and relations to maladjustment. Child Development, 79, 11851229.Google Scholar
Chodorow, N. J. (1999). The reproduction of mothering: Psychoanalysis and the sociology of gender (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Cialdini, R. B., & De Nicholas, M. E. (1989). Self-presentation by association. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 626631.Google Scholar
Cooley, C. H. (1902). Human nature and the social order. New York: Scribner.Google Scholar
Crain, R. M. (1996). The influence of age, race, and gender on child and adolescent multidimensional self-concept. In Bracken, B. A. (Ed.), Handbook of self-concept: Developmental, social, and clinical considerations (pp. 395420). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cross, S. E., Bacon, P. L., & Morris, M. L. (2000). The relational-interdependent self-construal and relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 791808.Google Scholar
Cross, S. E., & Madson, L. (1997a). Elaboration of models of the self: Reply to Baumeister and Sommer (1997) and Martin and Ruble (1997). Psychological Bulletin, 122, 5155.Google Scholar
Cross, S. E., & Madson, L. (1997b). Models of the self: Self-construals and gender. Psychological Bulletin, 122, 537.Google Scholar
Davidson, L. R., & Duberman, L. (1982). Friendship: Communication and interactional patterns in same-sex dyads. Sex Roles, 8, 809822.Google Scholar
Davies, P. G., Spencer, S. J., Quinn, D. M., & Gerhardstein, R. (2002). Consuming images: How television commercials that elicit stereotype threat can restrain women academically and professionally. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 16151628.Google Scholar
Davies, P. G., Spencer, S. J., & Steele, C. M. (2005). Clearing the air: Identity safety moderates the effects of stereotype threat on women’s leadership aspirations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 276287.Google Scholar
Dehle, C., & Weiss, R. L. (1998). Sex differences in prospective associations between marital quality and depressed mood. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60(4), 10021011.Google Scholar
DeHue, F., Bolman, C., & Völlink, T. (2008). Cyberbullying: Youngsters’ experiences and parental perception. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 11, 217223.Google Scholar
Delfabbro, P., Winefield, T., Trainor, S., Dollard, M., Anderson, S., Metzer, J., & Hammarstrom, A. (2006). Peer and teacher bullying/victimization of South Australian secondary school students: Prevalence and psychosocial profiles. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 7190.Google Scholar
Dember, W. N. (1974). Motivation and the cognitive revolution. American Psychologist, 29, 161168.Google Scholar
Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Elovson, A. C., & Fleming, J. S. (1989). The Adult Sources of Self-Esteem Inventory. Unpublished assessment instrument. California State University.Google Scholar
Flinkenflogel, N., Novin, S., Huizinga, M., & Krabbendam, L. (2017). Gender moderates the influence of self-construal priming on fairness considerations. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 503. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00503Google Scholar
Gabriel, S., & Gardner, W. L. (1999). Are there “his” and “hers” types of interdependence? The implications of gender differences in collective versus relational interdependence for affect, behavior, and cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 642655.Google Scholar
Gore, J. S., & Cross, S. E. (2010). Relational self-construal moderates the link between goal coherence and well-being. Self and Identity, 9, 4161.Google Scholar
Gough, H. G., & Heilbrun, A. B. (1980). The adjective check list manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.Google Scholar
Hamaguchi, E. (1977). Nihonrashisa no saihakken [A rediscovery of Japaneseness]. Tokyo: Nihon Keizai Shinbunsha.Google Scholar
Hamaguchi, E. (1987). Nihonjin no kihonteki kachikan ni kansurujikken-chosa kenkyu [Experimental and survey research on the Japanese basic value]. Unpublished manuscript. Osaka University.Google Scholar
Haselhuhn, M. P., Kennedy, J. A., Kray, L. J., Van Zant, A. B., & Schweitzer, M. E. (2015). Gender differences in trust dynamics: Women trust more than men following a trust violation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 56, 104109.Google Scholar
Hattie, J. (1992). Self-concept. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Heatherington, L., Daubman, K. A., Bates, C., Ahn, A., Brown, H., & Preston, C. (1993). Two investigations of “female modesty” in achievement situations. Sex Roles, 29, 739754. doi:10.1007/bf00289215Google Scholar
Heintzelman, S. J., & Bacon, P. L. (2015). Relational self-construal moderates the effect of social support on life satisfaction. Personality and Individual Differences, 73, 7277.Google Scholar
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2015). Bullying beyond the schoolyard: Preventing and responding to cyberbullying (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.Google Scholar
Hoffman, C., & Hurst, N. (1990). Gender stereotypes: Perception or rationalization? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 197208.Google Scholar
Horgan, T. G., Stein, J. M., Southworth, J., & Swarbrick, M. (2012). Gender differences in memory for what others say about themselves and their family members. Journal of Individual Differences, 33, 169174.Google Scholar
Hoyle, R. H., Kernis, M. H., Leary, M. R., & Baldwin, M. W. (1999). Selfhood: Identity, esteem, regulation. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Hoyt, C. L., & Murphy, S. E. (2016). Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 27, 387399.Google Scholar
Ickes, W., Stinson, L., Bissonnette, V., & Garcia, S. (1990). Naturalistic social cognition: Empathic accuracy in mixed-sex dyads. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 730742.Google Scholar
Ireson, J., & Hallam, S. (2009). Academic self-concepts in adolescence: Relations with achievement and ability grouping in schools. Learning and Instruction, 19, 201213. doi:doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.04.001Google Scholar
James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press (reprinted 1983).Google Scholar
Johnson, H. D., Brady, E., McNair, R., Congdon, D., Niznik, J., & Anderson, S. (2007). Identity as a moderator of gender differences in the emotional closeness of emerging adults’ same- and cross-sex friendships. Adolescence, 42, 124.Google Scholar
Josephs, R. A., Markus, H. R., & Tafarodi, R. W. (1992). Gender and self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 391402.Google Scholar
Kashima, Y., Yamaguchi, S., Kim, U., Choi, S.-C., Gelfand, M. J., & Yuki, M. (1995). Culture, gender, and self: A perspective from individualism-collectivism research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 925937.Google Scholar
Kawabata, Y. (2016). Relational aggression, depressive symptoms, and interdependence among school-age children. Personality and Individual Differences, 99, 1115. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.04.073Google Scholar
Kawabata, Y., & Onishi, A. (2017). Moderating effects of relational interdependence on the association between peer victimization and depressive symptoms. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 48, 214224.Google Scholar
Kray, L. J., Kennedy, J. A., & Van Zant, A. B. (2014). Not competent enough to know the difference? Gender stereotypes about women’s ease of being misled predict negotiator deception. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 125, 6172.Google Scholar
Kuhn, M. H., & McPartland, T. S. (1954). An empirical investigation of self-attitudes. American Sociological Review, 19, 6876.Google Scholar
Kwan, V. S., Bond, M. H., & Singelis, T. M. (1997). Pancultural explanations for life satisfaction: Adding relationship harmony to self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 10381051.Google Scholar
Kwang, T., Crockett, E. E., Sanchez, D. T., & Swann, W. B. Jr. (2013). Men seek social standing, women seek companionship: Sex differences in deriving self-worth from relationships. Psychological Science, 24, 11421150.Google Scholar
Lapidot-Lefler, N., & Barak, A. (2012). Effects of anonymity, invisibility, and lack of eye-contact on toxic online disinhibition. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 434443.Google Scholar
Lapidot-Lefler, N., & Dolev-Cohen, M. (2015). Comparing cyberbullying and school bullying among school students: Prevalence, gender, and grade level differences. Social Psychology of Education, 18, 116.Google Scholar
Lewicki, R. J., & Wiethoff, C. (2000). Trust, trust development, and trust repair. In Deutsch, M. & Coleman, P. (Eds.), The handbook of conflict resolution: Theory and practice (Vol. 1, pp. 86107). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Manis, M. (1977). Cognitive social psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 3, 550566.Google Scholar
Markus, H., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224253.Google Scholar
Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41, 954969.Google Scholar
Markus, H., & Oyserman, D. (1989). Gender and thought: The role of the self-concept. In Crawford, M. & Gentry, M. (Eds.), Gender and thought: Psychological perspectives (pp. 100127). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Marsh, H. W. (1989). Age and sex effects in multiple dimensions of self-concept: Preadolescence to early adulthood. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 417430.Google Scholar
Marsh, H. W. (1992a). Self Description Questionnaire (SDQ) II: A theoretical and empirical basis for the measurement of multiple dimensions of adolescent self-concept: An interim test manual and a research monograph. Sydney: University of Western Sydney.Google Scholar
Marsh, H. W. (1992b). Self Description Questionnaire (SDQ) III: A theoretical and empirical basis for the measurement of multiple dimensions of late adolescent self-concept: An interim test manual and a research monograph. Sydne: University of Western Sydney.Google Scholar
Marsh, H. W. (1992c). Self Description Questionnaire (SDQ): A theoretical and empirical basis for the measurement of multiple dimensions of preadolescent self-concept: An interim test manual and a research monograph. Sydney: University of Western Sydney.Google Scholar
Marsh, H. W., & Yeung, A. S. (1998). Longitudinal structural equation models of academic self-concept and achievement: Gender differences in the development of math and English constructs. American Educational Research Journal, 35, 705738. doi:10.3102/00028312035004705Google Scholar
Martin, C. L., & Ruble, D. N. (1997). A developmental perspective of self-construals and sex differences: Comment on Cross and Madson (1997). Psychological Bulletin, 122, 4550.Google Scholar
Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self, and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Mesch, G. S. (2009). Parental mediation, online activities, and cyberbullying. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 12, 387393.Google Scholar
Miller, J. B. (1986). Toward a new psychology of women (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Miller, P. (1979). Sex of subject and self-concept variables. In Wylie, R. C. (Ed.), The self-concept (Vol. 2, pp. 241328). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Morry, M. M., & Kito, M. (2009). Relational-interdependent self-construal as a predictor of relationship quality: The mediating roles of one’s own behaviors and perceptions of the fulfillment of friendship functions. Journal of Social Psychology, 149, 305322.Google Scholar
Moscovitch, D. A., Hofmann, S. G., & Litz, B. T. (2005). The impact of self-construals on social anxiety: A gender-specific interaction. Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 659672.Google Scholar
Nakamura, M. S., & Kawabata, Y. (2018). The moderating roles of relational interdependence and gender on the association between attachment insecurity and relational aggression in Guam. Asian American Journal of Psychology, Advance online publication. doi:10.1037/aap0000123Google Scholar
Nansel, T. R., Overpeck, M., Pilla, R. S., Ruan, W., Simons-Morton, B., & Scheidt, P. (2001). Bullying behaviors among US youth: Prevalence and association with psychosocial adjustment. JAMA, 285, 20942100. doi:10.1001/jama.285.16.2094Google Scholar
Norenzayan, A., & Heine, S. J. (2005). Psychological universals: What are they and how can we know? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 763784.Google Scholar
O’Brien, E., Konrath, S. H., Grühn, D., & Hagen, A. L. (2013). Empathic concern and perspective taking: Linear and quadratic effects of age across the adult life span. Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 68, 168175. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbs055Google Scholar
Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Oyserman, D., & Lee, S. W. (2008). Does culture influence what and how we think? Effects of priming individualism and collectivism. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 311342.Google Scholar
Petrella, M. V., & Gore, J. S. (2013). Relational self-construal and its relationship to academic citizenship behavior. Psychological Studies, 58, 115121. doi:10.1007/s12646-013-0182-1Google Scholar
Ratliff, K. A., & Oishi, S. (2013). Gender differences in implicit self-esteem following a romantic partner’s success or failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105, 688702.Google Scholar
Reis, H. T. (1998). Gender differences in intimacy and related behaviors: Context and process. In Canary, D. J. & Dindia, K. (Eds.), Sex differences and similarities in communication (pp. 203231). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Rose, A. J., Carlson, W., & Waller, E. M. (2007). Prospective associations of co-rumination with friendship and emotional adjustment: onsidering the socioemotional trade-offs of co-rumination. Developmental Psychology, 43, 10191031.Google Scholar
Rose, A. J., & Rudolph, K. D. (2006). A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 98131.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving the self. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Russell, L. H., Gould, K. L., & Fergus, T. A. (2017). Self-construal and gender interact to cause social evaluative concerns. Personality and Individual Differences, 109, 5155.Google Scholar
Shavelson, R. J., Hubner, J. J., & Stanton, G. C. (1976). Self-concept: Validation of construct interpretations. Review of Educational Research, 46, 407441.Google Scholar
Shea, M., & Yeh, C. (2008). Asian American students’ cultural values, stigma, and relational self-construal: Correlates of attitudes toward professional help seeking. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 30, 157172.Google Scholar
Simon, R. W., & Nath, L. E. (2004). Gender and emotion in the United States: Do men and women differ in self-reports of feelings and expressive behavior? American Journal of Sociology, 109, 11371176.Google Scholar
Singelis, T. M. (1994). The measurement of independent and interdependent self-construals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 580591.Google Scholar
Slonje, R., & Smith, P. K. (2008). Cyberbullying: Another main type of bullying? Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 49, 147154.Google Scholar
Smith, M. B. (1978). Perspectives on selfhood. American Psychologist, 33, 10531063.Google Scholar
Snell, P. A., & Englander, E. (2010). Cyberbullying victimization and behaviors among girls: Applying research findings in the field. Journal of Social Sciences, 6(4), 510514.Google Scholar
Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52, 613629.Google Scholar
Steele, C. M., Spencer, S. J., & Aronson, J. (2002). Contending with group image: The psychology of stereotype and social identity threat. In Zanna, M. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 34, pp. 379440). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In Worchel, S. & Austin, W. G. (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 3347). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.Google Scholar
Tesser, A. (1988). Toward a self-evaluation maintenance model of social behavior. In Berkowitz, L. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 181227). Cambridge, MA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Tiger, L. (1969). Men in groups. London: Nelson.Google Scholar
Trafimow, D., Triandis, H. C., & Goto, S. G. (1991). Some tests of the distinction between the private self and the collective self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 649655.Google Scholar
Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Watkins, D., Cheng, C., Mpofu, E., Olowu, S., Singh-Sengupta, S., & Regmi, M. (2003). Gender differences in self-construal: How generalizable are Western findings? Journal of Social Psychology, 143, 501519.Google Scholar
Watkins, D., Mortazavi, S., & Trofimova, I. (2000). Independent and interdependent conceptions of self: An investigation of age, gender, and culture differences in importance and satisfaction ratings. Cross-Cultural Research, 34, 113134.Google Scholar
Willard, N. (2006). Flame retardant: Cyberbullies torment their victims 24/7: Here’s how to stop the abuse. School Library Journal, 52, 5456.Google Scholar
Willard, N. (2007). Cyberbullying and cyberthreats: Responding to the challenge of online social aggression, threats, and distress. Champaign, IL: Research Press.Google Scholar
Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1990a). Measuring sex stereotypes: A multinational study. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1990b). Sex and psyche: Gender and self viewed cross-culturally. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Wylie, R. C. (1968). The present status of self theory. In Borgatta, E. F. & Lambert, W. W. (Eds.), Handbook of personality theory and research (pp. 728787). Chicago: Rand McNally.Google Scholar

Suggested Readings

Elysia G. Sotiriou is in her final year of the Counseling Psychology doctoral program in the Department of Educational Psychology at the University of Texas at Austin. Her research involves exploring the impact of culture on body image development and eating disorder risk, designing culturally inclusive measures to capture the body-related concerns of ethnic minority women, and expanding efficacious body image interventions to benefit under-served populations. Throughout her academic and clinical practicum opportunities, Elysia has cultivated a multitude of unique experiences working clinically with culturally diverse children, adolescents, and young adult women struggling with a range of body-related concerns. Elysia is currently a fellowship scholar in the Austin & Dell Medical School’s Integrated Behavioral Health (UT) program, a comprehensive, multidisciplinary training initiative designed to prepare culturally and linguistically diverse trainees to pursue careers treating under-served populations in integrated healthcare settings. Sotiriou was born and raised in Salt Lake City, Utah. She received her BA in psychology, sociology, and French from University of Wisconsin, Madison. Her graduate degrees are from the University of Texas, Austin. Upon graduating from UW-Madison, she accepted a job in Greece and moved to Athens just before the second austerity bill and the first wave of violent protests began. She studied in Paris, at La Sorbonne, for a year in 2010.

Germine H. Awad is an Associate Professor in the Human Development, Culture, and Learning Sciences and Counseling Psychology programs in the Department of Educational Psychology at the University of Texas at Austin. Her scholarship is characterized by three interrelated areas of inquiry: prejudice and discrimination, identity and acculturation, and body image among women of color. She has also written in the area of multicultural research methodology. The majority of her research is guided by the questions “What factors lead to discrimination against ethnic minorities?” and “What impacts perceptions of experienced discrimination?” The two populations that she has primarily focused on are Arab/Middle Eastern Americans and African Americans. Awad is concerned with how prejudicial attitudes and ideology impact attitudes toward ethnic minorities generally and within specific domains such as the workplace and higher education. In addition, she examines how racial/ethnic identity and acculturation impact ethnic minorities’ perception of discrimination, their experience of their bodies, and development of body image concerns.

Awad, G. H., Norwood, C., Taylor, D. S., Martinez, M., McClain, S., Jones, B., … Chapman-Hilliard, C. (2015). Beauty and body image concerns among African American college women. Journal of Black Psychology, 41(6), 540564. doi:10.1177/0095798414550864Google Scholar
Capodilupo, C. M., & Forsyth, J. M. (2014). Consistently inconsistent: A review of the literature on eating disorders and body image among women of color. In Miville, M. & Ferguson, A. (Eds.), Handbook of race-ethnicity and gender in psychology (pp. 343-360). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Chacis, S. (2007). How we shape body-image ideas. Health, 21(6), 132.Google Scholar
Eichen, D. M., & Wilfley, D. E. (2016). Special report on eating disorders: Diagnosis and assessment issues in eating disorders. Psychiatric Times, 33(5). www.psychiatrictimes.com/special-reports/diagnosis-and-assessment-issues-eating-disrodersGoogle Scholar
Miller, M. N., & Pumariega, A. J. (2001). Culture and eating disorders: A historical and cross-cultural review. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 64(2), 93110. doi:10.1521/psyc.64.2.93.18621Google Scholar
Paniagua, F. A. (2018). ICD-10 versus DSM-5 on cultural issues. Sage Open. doi:10.1177/2158244018756165Google Scholar
Webb, J. B., Warren-Findlow, J., Chou, Y. Y., & Adams, L. (2013). Do you see what I see? An exploration of inter-ethnic ideal body size comparisons among college women. Body Image, 10(3), 369379. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2013.03.005Google Scholar

References

Adams, J. (2009). Bodies of change: A comparative analysis of media representations of body modification practices. Sociological Perspectives, 52(1), 103129. doi:10.1525.sop.2009.52.1.103Google Scholar
Adato, A., & Harrington, M. (2007). Yes I use Botox, People (May), 8184.Google Scholar
Agaliata, D., & Tanteleff-Dunn, S. (2004). The impact of media exposure on males’ body image. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 722. doi:10.1521/jscp.23.1.7.26988Google Scholar
Akan, G. E., & Grilo, C. M. (1995). Sociocultural influences on eating attitudes and behaviors, body image, and psychological functioning: A comparison of African-American, Asian American, and Caucasian college women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 18, 181187.Google Scholar
Alegria, M., Woo, M., Cao, Z., Torres, M., Meng, X.L., & Striegel-Moore, R. (2007). Prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in Latinos in the United States. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 40, 1521. doi:10.1002/eat.20406Google Scholar
Altabe, M. (1998). Ethnicity and body image: Quantitative and qualitative analysis. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 23(2), 153159. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-108X(199803)23:2<153::AID-EAT5>3.0.CO;2-JGoogle Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2013): Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.; DSM-V). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
American Psychological Association, Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls. (2010). Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls. www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/girls/report-full.pdfGoogle Scholar
Awad, G. H., Norwood, C., Taylor, D. S., Martinez, M., McClain, S., Jones, B., … Chapman-Hilliard, C. (2015). Beauty and body image concerns among African American college women. Journal of Black Psychology, 41(6), 540564. doi:10.1177/0095798414550864Google Scholar
Bardone‐Cone, A. M., & Boyd, C. A. (2007). Psychometric properties of eating disorder instruments in Black and White young women: Internal consistency, temporal stability, and validity. Psychological Assessment, 19, 356362. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.19.3.356Google Scholar
Becker, A. E. (2007). Culture and eating disorder classification. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 40(53),  S117S122. doi:10.1002/eat.20435Google Scholar
Becker, A. E., Franko, D. L., Speck, A., & Herzog, D. B. (2003). Ethnicity and differential access to care for eating disorder symptoms. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 33, 205212. doi:10.1002/eat.10129Google Scholar
Bissell, K. L., & Chung, J. Y. (2009). Americanized beauty? Predictors of perceived attractiveness from US and South Korean participants based on media exposure, ethnicity, and socio-cultural attitudes toward ideal beauty. Asian Journal of Communication, 19, 227247. doi:10.1080/01292980902827144Google Scholar
Boie, I., Lopez, A. L., & Sass, D. A. (2013). An evaluation of a theoretical model predicting dieting behaviors: Tests of measurement and structural invariance across ethnicity and gender. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 46, 114135. doi:10.1177/0748175612468595Google Scholar
Boroughs, M., Krawczyk, R., & Thompson, J. K. (2010). Body dysmorphic disorder among diverse racial/ethnic and sexual orientation groups: Prevalence estimates and associated factors. Sex Roles, 63, 725737. doi:10.1007/s11199–010-9831-1Google Scholar
Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. P. (2011). Evolutionary psychology and feminism. Sex Roles, 64(9–10), 768787. doi:10.1007//s11199-011-9987-3Google Scholar
Canino, G., & Alegria, M. (2008). Psychiatric diagnosis – is it universal or relative to culture? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(3), 237250. doi:10.111/j.1469-7610.2007.01854.xGoogle Scholar
Capodilupo, C. M., & Forsyth, J. M. (2014). Consistently inconsistent: A review of the literature on eating disorders and body image among women of color. In Miville, M. & Ferguson, A. (Eds.), Handbook of Race-Ethnicity and Gender in Psycbology (pp. 343360). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Cash, T. F., & Deagle, E. A. (1997). The nature and extent of body-image disturbances in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa: A meta anylsis. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 22, 107125. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-108X(199709)22:2<107::AID-EAT1>3.0.CO;2-JGoogle Scholar
Cash, T. F., & Pruzinsky, T. (2002). Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Cashel, M. L., Cunningham, D., Landeros, C., Cokley, K. O., & Muhammad, G. (2003). Sociocultural attitudes and symptoms of bulimia: Evaluating the SATAQ with diverse college groups. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50, 287296. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.50.3.287Google Scholar
Chacis, S. (2007). How we shape body-image ideas. Health, 21(6), 132.Google Scholar
Chang, E. C., Yu, E. A., & Lin, E. Y. (2014). An examination of ethnic variations in perfectionism and interpersonal influences as predictors of eating disturbances: A look at Asian and European American femalesAsian American Journal of Psychology, 5(3), 243251. doi:10.1037/a0034621Google Scholar
Chang, F. C., Lee, C. M., Chen, P. H., Chiu, C. H., Pan, Y. C., & Huang, T. F. (2013). Association of thin‐ideal media exposure, body dissatisfaction and disordered eating behavior among adolescents in Taiwan. Eating Behaviors, 14, 382385. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2013.05.002Google Scholar
Chao, J. W., Lee, J. C., Chang, M. M., & Kwan, E. (2016). Alloplastic augmentation of the Asian face: A review of 215 patients. Aesthetic Surgery Journal, 36(8), 861868. doi:10.1093/asj/sjw013Google Scholar
Cusumano, D. L., & Thompson, J. K. (1997). Body image and body shape ideals in magazines: Exposure, awareness, and internalization. Sex Roles, 37, 701721. doi:10.1007/BF02936336Google Scholar
Cosmetic Surgery National Data Bank Statistics. (2016). Aesthetic Surgery Journal, 36 (supplement 1), 129. doi:10.1093/asj/sjv162Google Scholar
Crago, M., & Shisslak, C. M. (2003). Ethnic differences in dieting, binge eating, and purging behaviors among American females: A review. Eating Disorders, 11, 289304. doi:10.1080/10640260390242515Google Scholar
Crago, M., Shisslak, C. M., & Estes, L. S. (1996). Eating disturbances among American minority groups: A review. Interantional Journal of Eating Disorders, 19, 239248. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-108X(199604)19:3<239::AID-EAT2>3.0.CO;2-NGoogle Scholar
Davis, C., & Yager, J. (1992). Transcultural aspects of eating disorders: A critical literature review. Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry, 16, 377394. doi:10.1007/BF00052156Google Scholar
Davis, D., & Vernon, M. L. (2002). Sculpting the body beautiful: Attachment style, neuroticism, and use of cosmetic surgeries. Sex Roles, 47, 129138. doi:10/1023/A:1021043021624Google Scholar
Didie, E. R., & Sarwer, D. B. (2003). Factors that influence the decision to undergo cosmetic breast augmentation surgery. Journal of Women’s Health, 12(3), 241253. doi:10.1089/154099903321667582Google Scholar
Dobke, M., Chung, C. & Takabe, K. (2006). Facial aesthetic preferences among Asian women: Are all oriental Asians the same? Aesthetic Plastic Surgery 30(3), 342347. doi:10.1007/s00266–005-0091-3Google Scholar
Dolan, B. (1991). Cross cultural aspects of anorexia nervosa and bulimia: A review. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 10, 6778. doi:10.1002/1098-108X(199101)10:1<67::AID-EAT2260100108>3.0.CO;2-NGoogle Scholar
Doris, E., Shekriladze, I., Javakhishvili, N., Jones, R., Treasure, J., & Tchanturia, K. (2015). Is cultural change associated with eating disorders? A systematic review of the literature. Eating and Weight Disorders: Studies on Anorexia, Bulimia and Obesity, 20(2), 149160. doi:10.1007/s40519–015-0189-9Google Scholar
Eichen, D. M., & Wilfley, D. E. (2016). Special report on eating disorders: Diagnosis and assessment issues in eating disorders. Psychiatric Times, 33(5). www.psychiatrictimes.com/special-reports/diagnosis-and-assessment-issues-eating-disordersGoogle Scholar
Evans, P. C., & McConnell, A. R. (2003). Do racial minorities respond in the same way to mainstream beauty standards? Social comparison processes in Asian, Black, and White women. Self & Identity, 2, 153167. doi:10.1080/15298860309030Google Scholar
Falconer, J. W., & Neville, H. A. (2000). African American college women’s body image: An examination of body mass, African self-consciousness, and skin color satisfaction. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24(3), 236243. doi-org.ezproxy.lib.utexas.edu/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2000.tb00205.xGoogle Scholar
Fitzsimmons-Craft, E. E., Bardone-Cone, A. M., & Kelly, K. A. (2011). Objectified body consciousness in relation to recovery from an eating disorder. Eating Behaviors, 12, 302308. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2011.09.001Google Scholar
Franko, D. L., Becker, A. E., Thomas, J. J., & Herzog, D. B. (2007). Cross-ethnic differences in eating disorder symptoms and related distress. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 40, 156164. doi:10.1002/eat.20341Google Scholar
Franko, D. L., Thompson‐Brenner, H., Thompson, D. R., Boisseau, C. L., Davis, A., Forbush, K. T., & Wilson, G. T. (2012). Racial/ethnic differences in adults in randomized clinical trials of binge eating disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80, 186195. doi:10.1037/a0026700Google Scholar
Frederick, D. A., Forbes, G. B., Grigorian, K. E., & Jarcho, J. M. (2007). The UCLA body project I: Gender and ethnic differences in self-objectification and body satisfaction among 2,206 undergraduates. Sex Roles, 57(5–6), 317327. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9251-zGoogle Scholar
Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. (1997). Objectification theory: Towards understanding women’s lived experience and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173206. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.xGoogle Scholar
Freedman, R., Carter, M., Sbrocco, T., & Gray, J. (2006). Do men hold African American women and Caucasian women to different standards of beauty? Eating Behaviors, 8, 319333. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2006.11.008Google Scholar
Frith, K., Shaw, P., & Cheng, H. (2005). The construction of beauty: A cross-cultural analysis of women’s magazine advertising. Journal of Communication, 55, 5670. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02658xGoogle Scholar
Furnham, A., & Baguma, P. (1994). Cross-cultural differences in the evaluation of male and female body shapes. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 15(1), 8189. doi:10.1002/1098-108X(199401)15:1<81::AID-EAT2260150110>3.0.CO;2-DGoogle Scholar
George, J. B., & Franko, D. L. (2010). Cultural issues in eating pathology and body image among children and adolescence. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 35, 231242. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsp064Google Scholar
George, V. A., Erb, A. F., Harris, C. L., & Casazza, K. (2007). Psychosocial risk factors for eating disorders in Hispanic females of diverse ethnic background and non-Hispanic females. Eating Behavior, 8, 19. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2005.08.004Google Scholar
Gilbert, S. C. (2003). Eating disorders in women of color. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 444455. doi:10.1093/clipsy.bpg045Google Scholar
Gimlin, D. (2002). Body work: Beauty and self-image in American culture. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Gluck, M. E., & Geliebter, A. (2002). Racial/ethnic differences in body image and eating behaviors. Eating Behaviors, 3, 143151. doi:10.1016/S1471-0153(01)00052-6Google Scholar
Gordon, K. H., Brattole, M. M., Wingate, L. R., & Joiner, T. E. (2006). The impact of client race on clinician detection of eating disorders. Behavioral Therapy, 37, 319325. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2005.12.002Google Scholar
Gordon, K. H., Castro, Y., Sitnikov, L., & Holm-Denoma, J. M. (2010). Cultural body shape ideals and eating disorder symptoms among White, Latina, and Black college women. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16(2), 135143. doi:10.1037/a0018671Google Scholar
Grabe, S., & Hyde, J. S. (2006). Ethnicity and body dissatisfaction among women in the United States: A meta-analysisPsychological Bulletin, 132(4), 622640. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.4.622Google Scholar
Greenberg, B. S., & Mastro, D. E. (2008). Children, race, ethnicity, and media. In Calvert, S. L. & Wilson, B. J. (Eds.),  The handbook of children, media, and development (pp. 7497). Oxford: Blackwell. doi:10.1002/9781444302752.ch4Google Scholar
Guzman, I. M., & Valdivia, A. N. (2004). Brain, brow, and booty: Latina iconicity in U.S. popular culture. Communication Review, 7, 205221. doi:10.1080/10714420490448723Google Scholar
Hall, C. C. I. (1995). Asian eyes: Body image and eating disorders of Asian and Asian American women. Eating Disorders, 3(1), 819. doi:10.1080/10640269508249141Google Scholar
Heinberg, L. J., & Thompson, J. K. (1995). Body image and televised images of thinness and attractiveness: A controlled laboratory investigation. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 14, 325338. doi:10.1521/jscp.1995.14.4.325Google Scholar
Heinberg, L. J., Thompson, J. K., & Stormer, S. (1995). Development and validation of the Sociocultural Attitudes towards Appearance Questionnaire (SATAQ). International Journal of Eating Disorders, 17, 8189. doi:10.1002/1098-108X(199501)17:1<81::AID-EAT2260170111>3.0.CO;2-YGoogle Scholar
Henderson-King, D., & Henderson-King, E. (2005). Acceptance of cosmetic surgery: Scale development and validation. Body Image: An International Journal of Research, 2, 137149. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2005.03.003.Google Scholar
Hodes, M., Jones, C., & Davies, H. (1996). Cross-cultural differences in maternal evaluation of children’s body shapes. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 19, 257263. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-108X(199604)19:3<257::AID-EAT4>3.0.CO;2-LGoogle Scholar
Holliday, R., & Elfving-Hwang, J. (2012). Gender, globalization, and aesthetic surgery in South Korea. Body & Society, 18, 5881. doi:10.1177/1357034X12440828Google Scholar
Hrabosky, J. I., & Grilo, C. M. (2007). Body image and eating disordered behavior in a community sample of Black and Hispanic women. Eating Behaviors, 8, 106114. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2006.02.005Google Scholar
Iyer, D. S., & Haslam, N. (2003). Body image and eating disturbance among South Asian American women: The role of racial teasing. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 34(1), 142147. doi:10.1002/eat.10170Google Scholar
Jackson, L. A., & McGill, O. D. (1996). Body type preferences and body characteristics associated with attractive and unattractive bodies by African Americans and Anglo Americans. Sex Roles, 35, 295307. doi:10.1007/BF01664771Google Scholar
Jackson, T., & Chen, H. (2008). Sociocultural predictors of physical appearance concerns among adolescent girls and young women from China. Sex Roles, 58, 402411. doi:10.1007/s11199–007-9342-xGoogle Scholar
Jacobi, C., Hayward, C., Zwaan, M., Kraemer, H. C., & Agras, W. S. (2004). Coming to terms with risk factors for eating disorders: Application of risk terminology and suggestions for a general taxonomy. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 1965. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.1.19Google Scholar
Joiner, G. W., & Kashubeck, S. (1996). Acculturation, body image, self-esteem, and eating-disorder symptomology in adolescent Mexican American women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 419435. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1996.tb00309.xGoogle Scholar
Jung, J., & Lee, Y. J. (2009). Cross-cultural examination of women’s fashion and beauty magazine advertisements in the US and South Korea. Clothing & Textiles Research Journal, 27, 274286. doi:10.1177/0887302X08327087Google Scholar
Karupiah, P. (2012). Modification of the body: A comparative analysis of views of youths in Penang, Malaysia and Seoul, South Korea. Journal of Youth Studies 16(1): 116. doi.org.ezproxy.lib.utexas.edu/10.1080/13676261.2012.693588Google Scholar
Kashubeck-West, S., Coker, A. D., Awad, G. H., Stinson, R. D., Bledman, R., & Mintz, L. (2013). Do measures commonly used in body image research perform adequately with African American college women? Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 19(3), 357368. doi:10.1037/a0031905Google Scholar
Katzman, M. A., & Lee, S. (1997). Beyond body image: The integration of feminist and transcultural theories in the understanding of self-starvation. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 22(4), 385394. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-108X(199712)22:4<385::AID-EAT3>3.0.CO;2-IGoogle Scholar
Kawamura, K. Y. (2011). Asian American body images. In Cash, T. F. & Smolak, L. (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of science, practice, and prevention (pp. 229235). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Keel, P. K., & Klump, K. L. (2003). Are eating disorders culture bound syndromes? Implications for conceptualizing their etiology. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 747769. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.747Google Scholar
Kennedy, M. A., Templeton, L., Gandhi, A., & Gorzalka, B. B. (2004). Asian body image satisfaction: Ethnic and gender differences across Chinese, Indo-Asian, and European-descent studentsEating Disorders12(4), 321336. doi:10.1080/10640260490521415Google Scholar
Kim, S. Y., Seo, Y. S., & Baek, K. Y. (2014). Face consciousness among South Korean women: A culture-specific extension of objectification theory, Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61, 2436.Google Scholar
Knobloch-Westerwick, S., & Coates, B. (2006). Minority models in advertisements in magazines popular with minorities. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 83(3), 596614. doi:10.1177/107769900608300308Google Scholar
Koff, E., Benavage, A., & Wong, B. (2001). Body-image attitudes and psychosocial functioning in Euro-American and Asian-American college women. Psychological Reports, 88, 917928. doi:10.2466/pr0.2001.88.3.917Google Scholar
Kroon Van Diest, A. M., Tartakovsky, M., Stachon, C., & Pettit, J. W. (2014). The relationship between acculturative stress and eating disorder symptoms: Is it unique from general life stress? Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 37(3), 445457. doi:10.1007/s10865-013-9498-5Google Scholar
Kung, J. K. (2010). Mochi survey: Attitudes toward Asian American cosmetic surgery. Mochi Magazine, January 11.Google Scholar
Lacroix, C. (2004). Images of animated others: The orientalization of Disney’s cartoon heroines from the Little Mermaid to the Hunchback of Notre Dame. Popular Communication, 2(4), 213229. doi:10.1207/s15405710pc0204_2Google Scholar
Landrine, H., Klonoff, E. A., & Brown-Collins, A. (1992). Cultural diversity and methodology in feminist psychology: Critique, proposal, empirical example. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 16, 145163. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1992.tb002Google Scholar
Landrine, H., Klonoff, E. A., Gibbs, J., Manning, V., & Lund, M. (1995). Physical and psychiatric correlates of gender discrimination: An application of the Schedule of Sexist Events. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19, 473492.Google Scholar
Lau, A. S. M, Lum, S. K., Chronister, K. M., & Forrest, L. (2006). Asian American college women’s body image: A pilot study. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12(2), 259274. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.12.2.259.Google Scholar
Lavrin, A. (2004). Latin American women’s history: The national project. In Smith, B. G. (Ed.), Women’s history in global perspective (Vol. 1, pp. 180221). Champaign: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Lee, L. C., & Zhan, G. (1998). Psychosocial status of children and youths. In Lee, L. C. & Zane, N. W. S. (Eds.), Handbook of Asian American psychology (pp. 137163). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Levine, M.P., & Smolak, L. (1996). Media as a context for the development of disordered eating. In L. SmolakM. P. Levine, & R. Striegel-Moore (Eds.), The developmental psychopathology of eating disorders: Implications for research, prevention, and treatment (pp. 235–257). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Levine, M.P., & Smolak, L. (2010). Cultural influences on body image and the eating disorders. In Agras, W. S. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of eating disorders (pp. 223246). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lindridge, A. M., & Wang, C. (2008). Saving “face” in China: Modernization, parental pressure, and plastic surgery. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 7(6), 496508. doi:10.1002/cb.267Google Scholar
Logue, A. W. (1991). The psychology of eating and drinking (2nd ed.). New York: W. H. FreemanGoogle Scholar
Lokken, K. L., Worthy, S. L., Ferraro, F. R., & Attmann, J. (2008). Bulimic symptoms and body image dissatisfaction in college women: More affected by climate or race? Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 142, 386394. doi:10.3200/JRPL.142.4.386-394Google Scholar
Lopez, E., Blix, G. G., & Blix, A. G. (1995). Body image of Latinas compared to body image of non-Latina White women. Health Values, 19, 310.Google Scholar
Lovejoy, M. (2001). Disturbances in the social body: Differences in body image and eating problems among African American and White women. Gender & Society, 15(2), 239261. doi:10.1177/089124301015002005Google Scholar
Lucero, K., Hicks, R., Bramlette, J., Brassington, G., & Welter, M. (1992). Frequency of eating problems among Asian and Caucasian college students. Psychological Reports, 71, 255258. doi:10.2466/pr0.1992.71.1.255Google Scholar
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224253. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224Google Scholar
Marques, L., Alegria, M., Becker, A. E., Chen, C.‐N., Fang, A., Chosak, A., & Diniz, J. B. (2011). Comparative prevalence, correlates of impairment, and service utilization for eating disorders across US ethnic groups: Implications for reducing ethnic disparities in health care access for eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 44, 412420. doi:10.1002/eat.20787Google Scholar
Miller, M. N., & Pumariega, A. J. (2001). Culture and eating disorders: A historical and cross-cultural review. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 64(2), 93110. doi:10.1521/psyc.64.2.93.18621Google Scholar
Mintz, L. B., & Kashubeck, S. (1999). Body image and disordered eating among Asian American and Caucasian college students: An examination of race and gender differencesPsychology of Women Quarterly, 23(4), 781796. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1999.tb00397.xGoogle Scholar
Mulholland, A., & Mintz, L. B. (2001). Prevalence of eating disorders among African American women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 48, 111116. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.48.1.111Google Scholar
Munzer, S. R. (2011). Cosmetic surgery, racial identity, and aesthetics. Configurations 19(2), 243286. doi:10.1353/con.2011.0012Google Scholar
Neumark‐Sztainer, D., Wall, M., Guo, J., Story, M., Haines, J., & Eisenberg, M. (2006). Obesity, disordered eating, and eating disorders in a longitudinal study of adolescents: How do dieters fare 5 years later? Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 106, 559568.Google Scholar
Nugent, K. (2009). Cosmetic surgery on patients with body dysmorphic disorder: Cutting the tie that binds. Developments in Mental Health Law, 28(2), 77104.Google Scholar
Oliveira, J. S., Queiroz, A. C., Mantovani, H. C., de Melo, M. R., Detmann, E., Santos, E. M., & Bayão, G. F. V. (2011). Effect of propionic and lactic acids on in vitro ruminal bacteria growth. Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia, 40(5), 11211127.Google Scholar
Paniagua, F. A. (2018). ICD-10 versus DSM-5 on cultural issues. Sage Open. doi:10.1177/2158244018756165Google Scholar
Park, E., & Suh, H. (2009). The elements of beauty in male and female: Focused on the differences in determinants of facial beauty. Korean Journal of Women Psychology, 14, 617648. doi:10.18205/kpa.2009.14.4.007Google Scholar
Park, L. E., Calogero, R. M., Young, A. F., & DiRaddo, A.-M. (2010). Appearance-based rejection sensitivity predicts body dysmorphic disorder symptoms and cosmetic surgery acceptance. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 29(5), 489509. doi:10.1521/jscp.2010.29.5.489Google Scholar
Perez, M., Voelz, Z. R., Pettit, J., & Joiner, T. E. (2002). The role of acculturative stress and body dissatisrfaction in predicting bulimic symptomatology across ethnic groups. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31, 442454. doi:10.1002/eat.10006Google Scholar
Perilloux, C., Fleischman, D. S., & Buss, D. M. (2011). Meet the parents: Parent–offspring convergence and divergence in mate preferences. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(2), 253258. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.039Google Scholar
Perilloux, H. K., Webster, G. D., & Gaulin, S. J. C. (2010). Signals of genetic quality and maternal investment capacity: The dynamic effects of fluctuating asymmetry and waist-to-hip ratio on men’s ratings of women’s attractiveness. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1, 3442. doi:10.1177/1948550609349514Google Scholar
Pham, T. T. (2014). The medicalization of ethnicity in Vietnamese-American women: Cosmetic surgery and hybridization. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5, 92101. doi:10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n22p92Google Scholar
Phillips, K. A., McElroy, S. L., Dwight, M. M., Eisen, J. L., & Rasmussen, S. A. (2010). Delusionality and response to open-label fluvoxamine in body dysmorphic disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62, 8791. doi:10.4099/JCP..v62n0203Google Scholar
Pinhas, L., Toner, B. B., Ali, A., Garfinkel, P. E., & Stuckless, N. (1999). The effects of the ideal of female beauty on mood and body satisfaction. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 25(2), 223226. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-108X(199903)25:2<223::AID-EAT12>3.0.CO;2-BGoogle Scholar
Rancourt, D., Schaefer, L. M., Bosson, J. K., & Thompson, J. K. (2016). Differential impact of upward and downward comparisons on diverse women’s disordered eating behaviors and body image. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 49, 519523. doi:10.1002/eat.22470Google Scholar
Reyes-Rodriguez, M. L., Franko, D. L., Matos-Lamourt, A., Bulik, C. M., Von Holle, A., Camara-Fuentes, L. R., … Suárez-Torres, A. (2010). Eating disorder symptomatology: Prevalence among Latino college freshmen students. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 66, 666679. doi:10.1002/jclp.20684Google Scholar
Reyes-Rodríguez, M. L., Ramírez, J., Davis, K., Patrice, K., & Bulik, C. M. (2013). Exploring barriers and facilitators in eating disorders treatment among Latinas in the United StatesJournal of Latina/o Psychology, 1(2), 112131. doi:10.1037/a0032318Google Scholar
Rivadeneyra, R., & Ward, M. (2005). From Ally McBear to Sábado Gigante – Contributions of television viewing to the gender role attitudes of Latino adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research,  20(4), 453475. doi:10.1177/0743558405274871Google Scholar
Robinson, T. N., Killen, J. D., Litt, I. F., Hammer, L. D., Wilson, D. M., Haydel, K. F., et al. (1996). Ethnicity and body dissatisfaction: Are Hispanic and Asian girls at increased risk for eating disorders? Journal of Adolescence Health, 19, 384393. doi:10.1016/S1054–139X(96)00087-0Google Scholar
Rodgers, R. F., Berry, R., & Franko, D. L. (2018). Eating disorders in ethnic minorities: An update. Current Psychiatry Reports, 20(10), 1116. doi:10.1007/s11920–018-0938-3Google Scholar
Rodgers, R. F., McLean, S. A., & Paxton, S. J. (2015). Longitudinal relationships among internalization of the media ideal, peer social comparison, and body dissatisfaction: Implications for the tripartite influence model. Developmental Psychology, 51, 706713. doi:10.1037/dev0000013Google Scholar
Rodgers, R. F., Ziff, S., Lowy, A. S., Yu, K., & Austin, S. B. (2017). Results of a strategic science study to inform policies targeting extreme thinness standards in the fashion industry. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 50(3), 284292. doi:10.1002/eat.22682Google Scholar
Root, M. P. P. (1990). Resolving “other” status: Identity development of biracial individuals. In  Brown, L. S. and Root, M. P. P. (Eds.), Diversity and complexity in feminist therapy. New York: Haworth Press. pp. 185205. doi:10.1300/J015v09n01_11Google Scholar
Ross, K., Moscoso, A., Bayer, L., Rosselli-Risal, L., & Orgill, D. (2018). Plastic surgery complications from medical tourism treated in a U.S. academic medical center. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 141(4), 517e523e. doi:10.1097/PRS.0000000000004214Google Scholar
Rucker, C. E., & Cash, T. F. (1992). Body image, body-size perceptions, and eating behaviors among African American and White college women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 12, 291299. doi:10.1002/1098-108X(199211)12:3<291::AID-EAT2260120309>3.0.CO;2-AGoogle Scholar
Ruffolo, J. S., Phillips, K. A., Menard, W., Fay, C., & Weisberg, R. B. (2005). Comorbidity of body dysmorphic disorder and eating disorders: Severity of psychopathology and body image disturbance. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 39(1), 1119. doi:ezproxy.lib.utexas.edu:2444/10.1002/eat.20219Google Scholar
Sabik, N. J., Cole, E. R., & Ward, L. M. (2010). Are all minority women equally buffered from negative body image? Intra-ethnic moderators of the buffering hypothesis. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34, 139151. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2010.01557.xGoogle Scholar
Sarwer, D. B., Crerand, C. E., & Magee, L. (2011). Body dysmorphic disorder in patients who seek appearance enhancing medical treatments. Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Clinics, 22(4), 445453. doi:10.1016/j.coms.2010.07.002Google Scholar
Sarwer, D. B., Pruzynski, T., Cash, T. F., Goldwyn, R. M., & Persing, J. A. (2007). Psychological aspects of reconstructive and cosmetic plastic surgery: Clinical, empirical, and ethical perspectives. Philadelphia: Lippincott. doi:10.1097/01.prs.0000260585.04540.15Google Scholar
Saunders, J. F., Frazier, L. D., & Nichols-Lopez, K. A. (2016). Self-esteem, diet self-efficacy, body mass index, and eating disorders: Modeling effects in an ethnically diverse sample. Eating and Weight Disorders, 21(3), 459468. doi-org.ezproxy.lib.utexas.edu/10.1007/s40519–015-0244-6Google Scholar
Schooler, D. (2008). Real women have curves: A longitudinal investigation of TV and the body image development of Latina adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 23(2), 132153. doi:10.1177/0743558407310712Google Scholar
Sharan, P., & Sundar, A. S. (2015). Eating disorders in women. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 57, S286S295. doi:10.4103/0019-5545.161493Google Scholar
Shroff, H., Calogero, R., & Thompson, J. K. (2009). Assessment of body image. In Allison, D. (Ed.), Handbook of assessment methods for eating and weight-related problems (2nd ed., pp. 115136). New York: Sage.Google Scholar
Shroff, H., & Thompson, J. K. (2004). Body image and eating disturbances in India. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 35, 198203. doi:10.1002/eat.10229Google Scholar
Shupe, E. I., Cortina, L. M., Ramos, A., Fitzgerald, L. F., & Salisbury, J. (2002). The incidence and outcomes of sexual harassment among Hispanic and non-Hispanic White women: A comparison across levels of cultural affiliation. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26, 298308. doi:10.1111/1471-6402.t01-2-00069Google Scholar
Silber, T. J. (1986). Anorexia nervosa in Blacks and Hispanics. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 5, 121128. doi:10.1002/1098-108X(198601)5:1<121::AID-EAT2260050111>3.0.CO;2-9Google Scholar
Silberstein, L. R., Striegel-Moore, T. H., Timko, C., & Rodin, J. (1988). Behavioral and psychological implications of body dissatisfaction? Do men and women differ? Sex Roles, 19, 219232. doi:10.1007/BF00290156Google Scholar
Smart, R., Tsong, Y., Mejia, O. L., Hayashina, D., & Braaten, M. E. T. (2011). Therapists’ experiences treating Asian American women with eating disorders. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 42(4), 308315. doi:10.1037/a0024179Google Scholar
Smolak, L., & Murnen, S. K. (2004). Feminist perspectives on eating problems. In Thompson, J. K. (Ed.), Handbook of eating disorders and obesity (pp 590606). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Stevens, E. P. (1973). Marianismo: The other face of machismo in Latin America. In Pescatello, A. (Ed.), Female and male in Latin America (pp. 89101). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Stice, E. (2001). A prospective test of the dual pathway model of bulimic pathology: Mediating effects of dieting and negative affect. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 124135. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.110.1.124Google Scholar
Stice, E. (2002). Risk and maintenance factors for eating pathology: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 836848. doi:10.1037.0033-2909.128.5.825Google Scholar
Stice, E., & Shaw, H. E. (1994). Adverse effects of the media portrayed thin-ideal on women and linkages to bulimic symptomology. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 13, 288308. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.62.3.181Google Scholar
Striegel-Moore, R. H., & Bulik, C. M. (2007). Risk factors for eating disorders. American Psychologist, 62, 181198. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.62.3.181Google Scholar
Striegel-Moore, R. H., Schreiber, G. B., Pike, K. M., Wilfley, D. E., & Rodin, J. (1994). Drive for thinness in Black and White preadolescent girls. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 18, 5969. doi:10.1002/1098-108X(199507)18:1<59::AID-EAT2260180107>3.0.CO;2-6Google Scholar
Striegel, -Moore, R. H., Silberstein, I. R., & Rodin, J. (1986). Toward an understanding of risk factors for bulimia. American Psychology, 41, 246263. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.41.3.246Google Scholar
Striegel-Moore, R. H., & Smolak, L. (2000 ). The influence of ethnicity on eating disorders in women. In Eisler, R. M. & Hersen, M. (Eds.), Handbook of gender, culture, and health (pp. 227253). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Thompson, J. K. (1992). Body image: Extent of disturbance, associated features, theoretical models, assessment methodologies, intervention strategies, and a proposal for a new DSM IV diagnostic category - Body Image Disorder. In Hersen, M., Eisler, R. M., and Miller, P. M. (Eds.), Progress in behavior modification (pp. 354). Sycamore, IL: Sycamore.Google Scholar
Thompson, J. K., Heinberg, L. J., Altabe, M. N., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (1999). Exacting beauty: Theory, assessment and treatment of body image disturbance. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/10312-000Google Scholar
Thompson, J. K., & Stice, E. (2004). Thin-ideal internalization: Mounting evidence for a new risk factor for body-image disturbance and eating pathology. In Oltmanns, T. F. and Emery, R. E. (Eds.), Current directions in abnormal psychology.(pp. 97101). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. (Reprinted from Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 181–183).Google Scholar
Turner, L. (2012). News media reports of patient deaths following “medical tourism” for cosmetic surgery and bariatric surgery. Developing World Bioethics, 12, 2134.Google Scholar
Viladrich, A., Yeh, M. C., Bruning, N., & Weiss, R. (2009). “Do real women have curves?” Paradoxical body images among Latinas in New York City. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 11(1), 2028. doi:10.1007/s10903–008-9176-9Google Scholar
Warren, C. S., Castillo, L. G., & Gleaves, D. H. (2010). The sociocultural model of eating disorders in Mexican American women: Behavioral acculturation and cognitive marginalization as moderators. Eating Disorders, 18, 4357.Google Scholar
Webb, J. B., Warren-Findlow, J., Chou, Y. Y., & Adams, L. (2013). Do you see what I see? An exploration of inter-ethnic ideal body size comparisons among college women. Body Image, 10(3), 369379. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2013.03.005Google Scholar
Wertheim, E. H., Paxton, S. J., & Blaney, S. (2009). Body image in girls. In Smolak, L. & Thompson, J. K. (Eds.), Body image, eating disorders, and obesity in youth: Assessment, prevention, and treatment (2nd ed., pp. 4776). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/11860-003Google Scholar
Wong, S. N., Keum, B. T., Caffarel, D., Srinivasan, R., Morshedian, N., Capodilupo, C. M., & Brewster, M. E. (2017). Exploring the conceptualization of body image for Asian American womenAsian American Journal of Psychology, 8(4), 296307. doi:10.1037/aap0000077Google Scholar
Wong, Y. J., Owen, J., Tran, K. K., Collins, D. L., & Higgins, C. E. (2012). Asian American male college students’ perceptions of people’s stereotypes about Asian American men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 13(1), 7588. doi:10.1037/a0022800Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (2010). The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioral disorders: Diagnostic criteria for research. Geneva: World Health Organization.Google Scholar
Yanover, T., & Thompson, J. K. (2010). Perceptions of health and attractiveness: The effects of body fat, muscularity, gender and ethnicity. Journal of Health Psychology, 15, 10391048. doi:10.1177/1359105309360426Google Scholar
Yates, A., Edman, J., & Aruguete, M. (2004). Ethnic difference in BMI and body/self-dissatisfaction among Whites, Asian subgroups, Pacific Islanders, and African-Americans. Journal of Adolescent Health, 34, 300307. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2003.07.014Google Scholar
Yokoyama, K. (2007). The double binds of our bodies: Multiculturally-informed feminist therapy considerations for body image and eating disorders among Asian American women. Women & Therapy, 30(3/4), 177192. doi:10.1300/J015v30n03_13Google Scholar

Suggested Readings

Theresa K. Vescio is a Professor of Psychology and Women’s, Gender, and Sexuality Studies at the Pennsylvania State University. Her research seeks to understand the factors that facilitate and temper the expression of sexism, racism, and heterosexism. Vescio is particularly interested in the interplay between the stereotypic behaviors of powerful people and the consequences that those behaviors have for the emotions, motivation, and performance of low-power women, gay men, and people of color. Vescio was born in Minneapolis, as the child of teenage parents. She spent her youth running around the neighborhood, caring for younger siblings, in lakes, and playing sports. She worked with her grandmother and cousins in a family owned restaurant to support her undergraduate studies at the University of Minnesota. She started graduate school at the University of Florida, where she got her master?s degree. She then moved with her advisor to the University of Kansas, where she got her PhD. She did her postdoctoral work at the University of Cardiff, in Wales, and at Berkeley, before accepting a job at Penn State. She is a lesbian feminist scholar, activist, and parent.

Natasza Kosakowska-Berezecka works as an Associate Professor in the Division of Cross-Cultural Psychology and Psychology of Gender at the University of Gdańsk (Poland). Her main area of research is the cultural cues fostering gender equality within societies across the world. She also conducts research on the backlash against communal men and against the universality of precarious manhood. She is Principal Investigator within Towards Gender Harmony project (www.towardsgenderharmony.ug.edu.pl) where collaborators in over 50 countries are collecting data concerning the concepts of contemporary femininity and masculinity. She also applies her academic expertise to practitioners? work as she is a diversity and inclusion trainer ? she realized her applied projects in Norway or India. Kosakowska-Berezecka was born and raised in Gdynia, Poland, by the Baltic Sea. She lived for a long time in Norway. She is a feminist and a social activist.

Barreto, M., & Ellemers, N. (2005). The burden of benevolent sexism: How it contributes to the maintenance of gender inequalities. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35, 633642. doi:10.1002/ejsp.270Google Scholar
Becker, J. C., & Swim, J. K. (2011). Seeing the unseen: Attention to daily encounters with sexism as a way to reduce sexist beliefs. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35, 227–242. doi:10.1177/0361684310397509Google Scholar
Connor, R., Glick, P., & Fiske, S. (2016). Ambivalent sexism in the twenty first century. In Sibley, C. & Barlow, F. (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of the Psychology of Prejudice (pp. 295320). Cambridge: Cambrige University Press.Google Scholar
Glick, P., Fiske, S. T., Mladinic, A.,  Saiz, J. L., Abrams, D.Masser, B.,  … López López, W. (2000). Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 763775. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.763.Google Scholar
Rich, A. (1980). Compulsory heterosexuality and lesbian existence. Journal of Women’s History, 15, 11-48. doi:10.1353/jowh.2003.0079Google Scholar
Swim, J. K., Becker, J., Lee, E. & Pruitt, E. R. (2009). Sexism reloaded: Worldwide evidence for its endorsement, expression, and emergence in multiple contexts. In Landrine, H. & Russo, N. (Eds.), Handbook of Diversity in Feminist Psychology (pp. 137172). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar

References

ABC News. (2017). Donald Trump: Billy Bush says infamous Access Hollywood “Grab them by the p***y” tape is real. www.abc.net.au/news/2017-12-04/billy-bush-says-infamous-access-hollywood-trump-tape-is-real/9224358Google Scholar
Altés-Tárrega, J.A. (2002). El acoso sexual en el trabajo. Valencia: Tirant lo Blanch.Google Scholar
American Psychological Association. (2018). Guidelines for psychological practice with boys and men. www.apa.org/about/policy/boys-men-practice-guidelines.pdfGoogle Scholar
Archer, J. (2006). Cross-cultural differences in physical aggression between partners: A social-role analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, 133153. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1002_3Google Scholar
Ayres, M. M., Friedman, C. K., & Leaper, C. (2009). Individual and situational factors related to young women’s likelihood of confronting sexism in their everyday livesSex Roles61, 449460. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9635-3Google Scholar
Babl, J. D. (1979). Compensatory masculine responding as a function of sex role. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 47, 252257. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.47.2.252Google Scholar
Barreto, M., & Ellemers, N. (2005). The burden of benevolent sexism: How it contributes to the maintenance of gender inequalities. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35, 633642. doi:10.1002/ejsp.270Google Scholar
Becker, J., & Barreto, M. (2014). Ways to go: Men’s and women’s support for aggressive and non-aggressive confrontation of sexism as a function of gender identification. Journal of Social Issues, 70, 668686. doi:10.1111/josi.12085Google Scholar
Becker, J. C., & Swim, J. K. (2011). Seeing the unseen: Attention to daily encounters with sexism as a way to reduce sexist beliefs. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35, 227242. doi:10.1177/0361684310397509Google Scholar
Berdahl, J. L., & Moore, C. (2006). Workplace harassment: Double jeopardy for minority womenJournal of Applied Psychology, 91, 426436. doi:10.1037/00219010.91.2.426Google Scholar
Berger, J., Cohen, B., & Zelditch, M. (1972). Status characteristics and social interaction. American Sociological Review, 37, 241255. doi:10.2307/2093465Google Scholar
Boehm, C., & Flack, J. C. (2010). The emergence of simple and complex power structures through social niche construction. In Guinote, A. and Vescio, T. K. (Eds.), The social psychology of power (pp. 4686). London: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Bosson, J. K., & Vandello, J. A. (2013). Hard won and easily lost: A review and synthesis of theory and research on precarious manhood. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14, 101113. doi:10.1037/a0029826Google Scholar
Bosson, J. K., Vandello, J. A., Burnaford, R. M., Weaver, J. R., & Arzu Wasti, S. (2009). Precarious manhood and displays of physical aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 623634. doi:10.1177/0146167208331161Google Scholar
Bosson, J. K., Vandello, J. A., Michniewicz, K. S., & Lenes, J. G. (2012). American men’s and women’s beliefs about gender discrimination: For men, it’s not quite a zero-sum game. Masculinities and Social Change, 1, 210239. doi:10.4471/MCS.2012.14Google Scholar
Brandt, M. J. (2011). Sexism and gender inequality across 57 societies. Psychological Science, 22, 14131418. doi:10.1177/0956797611420445Google Scholar
Brannon, R. (1976). The male sex role: Our culture’s blueprint of manhood, and what it’s done for us lately. In David, D. & Brannon, R. (Eds.), The forty-nine percent majority: The male sex role (pp. 148). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Brown, D. E. (1991). Human universals. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Brownmiller, S. (1975). Against our will: Men, women, and rape. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Buchanan, N. T., & Ormerod, A. J. (2002). Racialized sexual harassment in the lives of African American women. Women & Therapy, 25, 107-124. doi:10.1300/J015v25n03_08Google Scholar
Buhlmann, F., Elcheroth, G., & Tettamanti, M. (2010). The division of labour among European couples: The effects of life course and welfare policy on value-practice configurations. European Sociological Review, 26, 4966. doi:10.1093/esr/jcp004Google Scholar
Bushman, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 623634. doi:10.1177/0146167208331161Google Scholar
Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Campbell, W. K. (1999). Narcissism and romantic attraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 12541270. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1254Google Scholar
Cejka, M. A., & Eagly, A. H. (1999). Gender-stereotypic images of occupations correspond to the sex segregation of employment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 413423. doi:10.1177/0146167299025004002Google Scholar
Chia, R. C., Allred, L. J., & Jerzak, P. A. (1997). Attitudes toward women in Taiwan and China. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 13150. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00105.xGoogle Scholar
Cohen, D., Nisbett, R. E., Bowdle, B. F., & Schwartz, N. (1996). Insult, aggression, and the southern culture of honor: An “experimental ethnography.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 945959. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.5.945Google Scholar
Coleman, A. M. (Ed.). (2006). Oxford dictionary of psychology (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Connell, R. (1995). Masculinities. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Croft, A., Schmader, T., & Block, K. (2015). An under-examined inequality: Cultural and psychological barriers to men’s engagement with communal roles. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 19, 343370. doi:10.1177/1088868314564789Google Scholar
Cundiff, J. L., & Vescio, T. K. (2016). Gender stereotypes influence how people explain gender disparities in the workplace. Sex Roles, 75, 126138. doi:10.1007/s11199-016-0593-2Google Scholar
Cundiff, J. L., Zawadzki, M. J., Danube, C. L., & Shields, S. A. (2014). Using experiential learning to increase the recognition of everyday sexism as harmful: The WAGES intervention. Journal of Social Issues, 70, 703721. doi:10.1111/josi.12087Google Scholar
Dahl, J., Vescio, T. K., & Weaver, K. (2015). How threats to masculinity sequentially cause public discomfort, anger, and ideological dominance over women. Social Psychology, 46, 242254. doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000248Google Scholar
Darley, J. M., & Gross, P. H. (1983). A hypothesis-confirming bias in labelling effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 2033. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.20Google Scholar
D’Augelli, A. R., Grossman, A. H., & Starks, M. T. (2006). Childhood gender atypicality, victimization, and PTSD among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 14621482. doi:10.1177/0886260506293482Google Scholar
de Beauvoir, S. (2010 [1949]). The second sex. (C. Borde & S. Maloway-Chevalier, Trans.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf.Google Scholar
Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 518. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5Google Scholar
Donnelly, K., & Twenge, J. M. (2017). Masculine and feminine traits on the BEM sex-role inventory, 1993–2012: A cross-temporal meta-analysis. Sex Roles, 76, 556565. doi:10.1007/s11199-016-0625-yGoogle Scholar
Dworkin, A. (2006 [1987]). Intercourse (20th anniversary ed.). New York: Basic Books. (Original work published in 1987)Google Scholar
Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Eagly, A. H., & Mladinic, A. (1989). Gender stereotypes and attitudes toward women and men. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 15, 543558. doi:10.1177/0146167289154008Google Scholar
Eagly, A. H., & Mladinic, A. (1994). Are people prejudiced against women? Some answers from research on attitudes, gender stereotypes, and judgments of competence. European Review of Social Psychology, 5, 135. doi:10.1080/14792779543000002Google Scholar
Eagly, A. H., Mladinic, A., & Otto, S. (1991). Are women evaluated more favorably than men? An analysis of attitudes, beliefs, and emotions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 15, 203216. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1991.tb00792.xGoogle Scholar
Eagly, A. H., Wood, W., & Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C. (2004). Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: Implications for the partner preferences of women and men. In Eagly, A. H., Beall, A. E., & Sternberg, R. J. (Eds.), The psychology of gender (pp. 269295). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Ebbeler, C., Grau, I., & Banse, R. (2017). Cultural and individual factors determine physical aggression between married partners: Evidence from 34 countries. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 48, 10981118. doi:10.1177/0022022117719497Google Scholar
Ellemers, N., & Barreto, M. (2009). Collective action in modern times: How modern expressions of prejudice prevent collective action. Journal of Social Issues, 65, 749768. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2009.01621.xGoogle Scholar
Emrich, C., Dendmark, F. L., & Den Hartog, D. (2004). Cross-cultural differences in gender egalitarianism: Implications for societies, organizations, and leaders. In House, R., Hanges, P., Javidan, M., Dorgman, P., & Gupta, V. (Eds.), Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 343493). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Engels, F. (1940 [1884]). The origin of the family, private property and the state. London: Lawrence and Wishart.Google Scholar
European Commission. (2019). Gender equality, stereotypes, and women in politics. ec.europa.eu/commfrontoffice/publicopinion/index.cfm/ResultDoc/download/DocumentKy/80678Google Scholar
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. (2014). Violence against women: An EU-wide survey. Results at a glance. fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2014/violence-against-women-eu-wide-survey-results-glancGoogle Scholar
European Union Social Eurobarometer Study. (2017). Gender equality, 2017. ec.europa.eu/commfrontoffice/publicopinion/index.cfm/ResultDoc/download/DocumentKy/80678Google Scholar
Fidelis, M. (2010). Women, communism, and industrialization in postwar Poland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Firestone, S. (1974). The dialectic of sex: The case for feminist revolution. New York: Morrow.Google Scholar
Fischer, A. R., Tokar, D. M., Good, G. E., & Snell, A. F. (1998). More on the structure of male role norms: Exploratory and multiple sample confirmatory analyses. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 135155. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1998.tb00147.xGoogle Scholar
Fischer, F. B., Becker, J. C., Kito, M., & Nayır, D. Z. (2017). Collective action against sexism in Germany, Turkey, and Japan: The influence of self-construal and face concerns. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 20, 409423. doi:10.1177/1368430216683533Google Scholar
Fiske, A., & Rai, T. S. (2015). Virtuous violence: Hurting and killing to create, sustain, end, and honor social relationships. London: Clays.Google Scholar
Fiske, S. T. (1993). Controlling other people: The impact of power on stereotyping. American Psychologist48, 621628. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.48.6.621Google Scholar
French, J., & Raven, B. (1959). The bases of social power. In Cartwright, D. (Ed.), Studies in social power (pp. 150167). Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research. doi:10.1111/j.1530-2415.2008.00159.x.Google Scholar
Gartzia, L., & Baniandrés, J. (2016). Are people-oriented leaders perceived as less effective in task performance? Surprising results from two experimental studies. Journal of Business Research, 69, 508516. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.05.008Google Scholar
Gervais, S. J., & Vescio, T. K. (2007). The origins and consequences of subtle sexism. In Columbus, F. (Ed.), Advances in psychology research (Vol. 49, pp. 137166). Happauge, NY: Nova Science.Google Scholar
Gervais, S. J., Vescio, T. K., & Allen, J. (2011). When are people interchangeable sexual objects? The effect of gender and body type on sexual fungibility. British Journal of Social Psychology, 51, 499513. doi:10.1177/0361684310386121Google Scholar
Gibbons, J. L., Hamby, B. A., & Dennis, W. D. (1997). Researching gender role ideologies internationally and cross‐culturally. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 151170. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00106.xGoogle Scholar
Gidycz, C. A., Orchowski, L. M., & Berkowitz, A. D. (2011). Preventing sexual aggression among college men: An evaluation of a social norms and bystander intervention program. Violence Against Women, 17, 720742. doi:10.1177/1077801211409727Google Scholar
Gillette© Commerical. (2019). #TheBestMenCanBe #Gillette. www.youtube.com/watch?v=koPmuEyP3a0Google Scholar
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 491512. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491Google Scholar
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (2001). An ambivalent alliance. Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifications for gender inequality. American Psychologist, 56, 109118. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.56.2.109Google Scholar
Glick, P., Fiske, S. T., Mladinic, A.,  Saiz, J. L., Abrams, D.Masser, B., … López López, W. (2000). Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 763775. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.763.Google Scholar
Glick, P., Gangl, C., Gibb, S., Klumpner, S., & Weinberg, E. (2007). Defensive reactions to masculinity threat: More negative affect toward effeminate (but not masculine) gay men. Sex Roles, 57, 5559. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9195-3Google Scholar
Glick, P., Lameiras, M., & Castro, Y. R. (2002). Education and Catholic religiosity as predictors of hostile and benevolent sexism toward women and men. Sex Roles, 47, 433441. doi:10.1023/A:1021696209949Google Scholar
Glick, P., Lameiras, M., Fiske, S. T., Eckes, T., Masser, B., Volpato, C., … Wells, R. (2004). Bad but bold: Ambivalent attitudes toward men predict gender inequality in 16 Nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 713728. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.5.713Google Scholar
Gramsci, A. (2011). The prison notebooks (Vols. 13, J. A. Buttigieg, Trans.). New York: Columbia University Press. (Original work published from 1929 to 1935.)Google Scholar
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102, 427. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.102.1.4Google Scholar
Halberstam, J. (2008). Female masculinity (20th anniversary ed.). Durham, NC: Duke University Press. (Original work published in 1997.)Google Scholar
Hayes, E.-R., & Swim, J. K. (2013). African, Asian, Latina/o, and European Americans’ responses to popular measures of sexist beliefs: Some cautionary notes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37, 155166. doi:10.1177/0361684313480044Google Scholar
Hirigoyen, M.-F. (2011). Stalking the soul: Emotional abuse and the erosion of identity. (H. Marx, Trans. with afterword by Thomas Moore). New York: Helen Marx. (Original work published in 1998.)Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Holter, Ø. (2014). “What’s in it for men?”: Old question, new data. Men and Masculinities, 17, 515548. doi:10.1177/1097184X14558237Google Scholar
House, R. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. & Hanges, P. (2004). GLOBE: The research program. In Goethals, G. R, Sorenson, G’ J., & Burns, M. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Hyde, J. S. (2014). Gender similarities and differences. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 373398. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115057Google Scholar
Jackman, M. (1994). Velvet glove: Paternalism and conflict in gender, class, and race relations. Berkeley: University of California PressGoogle Scholar
Jost, J. T., & Banaji, M. R. (1994). The role of stereotyping in system justification and the production of false consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 127. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.1994.tb01008.xGoogle Scholar
Koenig, A. M., & Eagly, A. H. (2014). Evidence for the social role theory of stereotype content: Observations of groups’ roles shape stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107, 371392. doi:10.1037/a0037215Google Scholar
Kosakowska-Berezecka, N., Besta, T., Adamska, K., Jaśkiewicz, M., Jurek, P., & Vandello, J. A (2016). If my masculinity is threatened I won’t support gender equality? The role of agentic self-stereotyping in restoration of manhood and perception of gender relations. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 17, 274284. doi:10.1037/men0000016Google Scholar
Kosakowska-Berezecka, N., Jurek, P., Besta, T., Korzeniewska, L., & Seibt, B. (2018). De-gender them! Gendered vs cooperative division of housework – cross-cultural comparison of Polish and Norwegian students. Current Psychology, 37, 19. doi:10.1007/s12144-018-9915-6Google Scholar
Kosakowska-Berezecka, N., Safdar, S., Bhardwaj, G., & Jurek, P. (2018). Evaluations of men in domestic roles in Canada, Norway, Poland, & India. Journal of Men’s Studies, 26, 143156. doi:10.1177/10608265177734379Google Scholar
Lee, E. A., Soto, J. A., Swim, J. K., & Bernstein, M. J. (2012). Bitter reproach or sweet revenge: Cultural differences in response to racism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 920932. doi:10.1177/0146167212440292Google Scholar
Lee, I.-C., Pratto, F., & Li, M.-C. (2007). Social relationships and sexism in the United States and TaiwanJournal of Cross-Cultural Psychology38, 595612. doi:10.1177/0022022107305241Google Scholar
Lemus, S., Navarro, L. J., Velásquez, M., Ryan, E., & Megías, J. L. (2014). From sex to gender: A university intervention to reduce sexism in Argentina, Spain, and El Salvador. Journal of Social Issues, 70, 741762. doi:10.1111/josi.12089Google Scholar
Levin, S., Sinclair, S., Veniegas, R. C., & Taylor, P. L. (2002). Perceived discrimination in the context of multiple group memberships. Psychological Science, 13, 557560. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00498Google Scholar
Maass, A., Cadinu, M., Guarnieri, G., & Grasselli, A. (2003). Sexual harassment under social identity threat: The computer harassment paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 853870. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.853Google Scholar
MacKinnon, C. (1987). Feminism unmodified: Discourses on life and law. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
MacKinnon, C. (1989). Toward a feminist theory of the state. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Mahalik, J. R., Good, G. E., Tager, D., Levant, R. F., & Mackowiak, C. (2012). Developing a taxonomy of helpful and harmful practices for clinical work with boys and men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59, 591603. doi:10.1037/a0030130Google Scholar
McHugh, M. C., & Frieze, I. H. (1997). The measurement of gender-role attitudes: A review and commentary. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 116. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00097.xGoogle Scholar
McKinnon, C.A. (1987). Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
McKinnon, C.A. (1989). Toward a Feminist Theory of the State. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Mikołajczak, M., & Pietrzak, J. (2015). A broader conceptualization of ambivalent sexism: The case of Poland. In Safdar, S. & Kosakowska-Berezecka, N. (Eds.), Psychology of gender through the lens of culture: Theories and applications (pp. 169191). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-14005-6Google Scholar
Millett, K. (1977). Sexual politics. London: Virago.Google Scholar
Moradi, B., & Subich, L. M. (2003). A concomitant examination of the relations of perceived racist and sexist events to psychological distress for African American women. Counseling Psychologist, 31, 451469. doi:10.1177/0011000003031004007Google Scholar
Morf, C. C., & Rhodewalt, F. (2001). Unraveling the paradoxes of narcissism: A dynamic self-regulatory processing model. Psychological Inquiry, 12, 177196. doi:10.1207/S15327965PLI1204_1Google Scholar
Moss-Racusin, C. A., Phelan, J. E., & Rudman, L. A. (2010). When men break the gender rules: Status incongruity and backlash against modest men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 11, 140151. doi:10.1037/a0018093Google Scholar
Moya Garofano, A. (2016). Women’s objectification: Analyzing psychosocial consequences of piropos. Doctoral thesis. Universidad de Granada, Spain.Google Scholar
Nisbett, R. E., & Cohen, D. (1996). Culture of honor: The psychology of violence in the South. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Noland, M., Moran, T., & Kotschwar, B. R. (2016). Is gender diversity profitable? Evidence from a global survey. Peterson Institute for International Economics Working Paper No. 16-3. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2729348Google Scholar
Nosek, B. A., Smyth, F. L., Sriram, N., Lindner, N. M.Devos, T.Ayala, A., … Greenwald, A. G. (2009). National differences in gender-science stereotypes predict national sex differences in science and math achievement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106, 10,59310,597Google Scholar
O’Neil, J. M. (2008). Summarizing 25 years of research on men’s gender role conflict using the gender role conflict scale: New research paradigms and clinical implications. Counseling Psychologist, 36, 358445. doi:10.1177/0011000008317057Google Scholar
Pascoe, C. J. (2007). Dude, you’re a fag: Masculinity and sexuality in high school. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Plant, E. A., & Devine, P. G. (1998) Internal and external motivation to respond without prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 811832. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.3.811Google Scholar
Popovich, P. M., & Warren, M. A. (2010) The role of power in sexual harassment as a counterproductive behavior in organizations. Human Resource Management Review, 20, 4553. doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2009.05.003Google Scholar
Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., Stallworth, L. M., & Malle, B. F. (1994). Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 741763. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.741Google Scholar
Pratto, F., & Walker, A. (2004). The bases of gendered power. In Eagly, A. H., Beall, A. E. and Sternberg, R. J. (Eds.), The psychology of gender (2nd ed., pp. 242268). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Prentice, D. A., & Carranza, E. (2002). What women and men should be, shouldn’t be, are allowed to be, and don’t have to be: The contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26, 269281. doi:10.1111/1471-6402.t01-1-00066Google Scholar
Pryor, J. B. ( 1987 ). Sexual harassment proclivities in menSex Roles 17269290. doi:10.1007/BF00288453Google Scholar
Reigeluth, C. S., & Addis, M. E. (2016). Adolescent boys’ experiences with policing of masculinity: Forms, functions, and consequences. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 17, 7483. doi:10.1037/a0039342Google Scholar
Rich, A. (1980). Compulsory heterosexuality and lesbian existence. Journal of Women’s History, 15, 1148. doi:10.1353/jowh.2003.0079Google Scholar
Rivers, J. J., & Josephs, R. A. (2010). Dominance and health: The role of social rank in physiology and illness. In Guinote, A. & Vescio, T. K. (Eds.), The social psychology of power (pp. 87112). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Rudman, L. A. (1998). Self-promotion as a risk factor for women: The costs and benefits of counterstereotypical impression management. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 629645. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.629Google Scholar
Rudman, L. A., & Fairchild, K. (2004). Reactions to counterstereotypic behavior: The role of backlash in cultural stereotype maintenance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 157176. doi:1037/0022-3514.87.2.157Google Scholar
Rudman, L. A., & Glick, P. (2001). Prescriptive gender stereotypes and backlash toward agentic women. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 732762. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00239Google Scholar
Rudman, L. A., & Glick, P. (2010). The social psychology of gender: How power and intimacy shape gender relations. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Rudman, L. A., & Mescher, K. (2012). Of animals and objects: Men’s implicit dehumanization of women and likelihood of sexual aggression. Personality and Social Psychological Bulletin, 38, 734746. doi:10.1177/0146167212436401.Google Scholar
Rudman, L. A., & Mescher, K. (2013). Penalizing men who request a family leave: Is flexibility stigma a femininity stigma? Journal of Social Issues, 69, 322340. doi:10.1111/josi.12017Google Scholar
Ruthig, J. C., Kehn, A., Gamblin, B. W., Vanderzanden, K., & Jones, K. (2017). When women’s gains equal men’s losses: Predicting a zero-sum perspective of gender status. Sex Roles, 76, 1726. doi:10.1007/s11199-016-0651-9Google Scholar
Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Forbes, C. (2008). An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance. Psychological Review, 115, 336356. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.115.2.336Google Scholar
Sev’er, A., & Yurdakul, G. (2001). Culture of honor, culture of change: A feminist analysis of honor killings in Turkey. Violence Against Women, 7, 964998. doi:10.1177/10778010122182866.Google Scholar
Sibley, C. G., Robertson, A., & Wilson, M. S. (2006). Social dominance orientation and right-wing authoritarianism: Additive and interactive effects. Political Psychology, 27, 755768. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2006.00531.xGoogle Scholar
Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F. (1999). Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sidanius, J., Pratto, F., Sinclair, S., & van Laar, C. (1996). Mother Teresa meets Genghis Khan: The dialectics of hierarchy-enhancing and hierarchy-attenuating career choices. Social Justice Research, 9, 145170. doi:10.1007/BF02198077Google Scholar
Snyder, M., & Cantor, N. (1979). Testing hypotheses about other people: The use of historical knowledgeJournal of Experimental Social Psychology15, 330342. doi:10.1016/0022-1031(79)90042-8Google Scholar
Snyder, M., Tanke, E. D., & Berscheid, E. (1977). Social perception and interpersonal behavior: On the self-fulfilling nature of social stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 656666. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.35.9.656Google Scholar
Spears, R., Greenwood, R. M., de Lemus, S., & Sweetman, J. (2010). Legitimacy, social identity, and power. In Guinote, A. & Vescio, T. K. (Eds.), The social psychology of power (pp. 251283). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Stewart, A. L. (2014). The men’s project: A sexual assault prevention program targeting college men. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 15, 481485. doi:10.1037/a0033947Google Scholar
Swim, J. K., Becker, J., Lee, E. & Pruitt, E. R. (2009). Sexism reloaded: Worldwide evidence for its endorsement, expression, and emergence in multiple contexts. In Landrine, H. & Russo, N. (Eds.), Handbook of diversity in feminist psychology (pp. 137172). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Swim, J. K., & Sanna, L. J. (1996). He’s skilled, she’s lucky: A meta-analysis of observers’ attributions for women’s and men’s successes and failures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 507519. doi:10.1177/0146167296225008Google Scholar
Thompson, E. H., & Pleck, J. H. (1986). The structure of male role norms. American Behavioral Scientist, 29, 531543. doi:10.1037/a0012453Google Scholar
United Nations Development Programme. (2014). Human Development Report 2014: Sustaining human progress - reducing vulnerabilities and building resilience. New York: United Nations Publications. http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report-2014Google Scholar
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2017). World population prospects: The 2017 revision, key findings and advance tables. Working Paper No. ESA/P/WP/248. population.un.org/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2017_KeyFindings.pdfGoogle Scholar
Vandello, J. A., Bosson, J. K., Cohen, D., Burnaford, R. M., & Weaver, J. R. (2008). Precarious manhood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 13251339. doi:10.1037/a0012453Google Scholar
Vandello, J. A., & Cohen, D. (2003). Male honor and female fidelity: Implicit cultural scripts that perpetuate domestic violence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 9971010. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.5.997Google Scholar
Vescio, T. K., & Biernat, M. R. (1999).When stereotype-based expectations impair perceivers’ performance: The effect of prejudice, race, and target quality on judgments and perceiver performance. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 961969. doi:10.1006/jesp.1993Google Scholar
Vescio, T. K., & Gallegos, J. (under review). The effects of threats to masculinity on men’s endorsement of rape myths and self-reported likelihood to sexually harass women.Google Scholar
Vescio, T. K., Gervais, S., Snyder, M., & Hoover, A. (2005). Power and the creation of patronizing environments: The stereotype-based behaviors of the powerful and their effects on female performance in masculine domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 658672. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.4.658Google Scholar
Vescio, T. K., & Schermerhorn, N. E. C. (under review). Hegemonic masculinity predicts men and women’s support of President Trump.Google Scholar
Vescio, T. K., Schermerhorn, N. E. C., Gallegos, J., & Lewis, K. (under review). Hegemonic masculinity predicts men and women’s increased support for supreme Court Justice Kavanaugh over Dr. Christine Blassie Ford.Google Scholar
Vescio, T. K., Schlenker, K. A., & Lenes, J. G. (2010). Power and sexism. In Guinote, A. & Vescio, T. (Eds.), The social psychology of power (pp. 363380). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Vial, A. C., Napier, J. L., & Brescoll, V. L. (2016). A bed of thorns: Female leaders and the self-reinforcing cycle of illegitimacy. Leadership Quarterly, 27, 400414. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.12.004Google Scholar
Vijver, F. J. (2010). Emic–etic distinction. In Clauss-Ehlers, C. S. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of cross-cultural school psychology (pp. 422–423). Boston, MA: Springer. doi:10.1007%2F978-0-387-71799-9_158Google Scholar
Weaver, K. S., & Vescio, T. K. (2015). The justification of social inequality in response to masculinity threats. Sex Roles, 72, 521535. doi:10.1007/s11199-015-0484-yGoogle Scholar
Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1990). Measuring sex stereotypes: A multination study (rev. ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Wittenbrink, B., & Henly, J. R. (1996). Creating social reality: Informational social influence and the content of stereotypic beliefs. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 598610. doi:10.1177/0146167296226005Google Scholar
Wittig, M. (1992). The straight mind and other essays. Boston, MA: Beacon Press and Hemel Hemstead: Harvester.Google Scholar
Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2012). Biosocial construction of sex differences and similarities in behavior. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 46, pp. 55123). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
World Economic Forum. (2018). The global gender gap report. www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2018.pdfGoogle Scholar
World Health Organization. (2014). Global status report on violence prevention 2014. www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/status_report/2014/en/Google Scholar
Yodanis, C. L. (2004). Gender inequality, violence against women, and fear: A cross-national test of the feminist theory of violence against women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19, 655675. doi:10.1177/0886260504263868Google Scholar
Zawadzki, M. J., Shields, S. A., Danube, C. L., & Swim, J. K. (2014). Reducing the endorsement of sexism using experiential learning: The Workshop Activity for Gender Equity Simulation (WAGES). Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38, 7592. doi:10.1177/0361684313498573Google Scholar

Suggested Readings

Rachel Karniol is Professor of Social Development in the School of Psychological Sciences at Tel Aviv University. She was born in Israel to Holocaust survivors from Hungary and Transylvania. Hungarian was her first language, Hebrew was her second language, and English became her third language after arriving in Canada in 6th grade. After completing her PhD at the University of Waterloo, Canada, she taught at the University of Toronto. During sabbaticals she also taught at Princeton University, Carnegie Mellon University, Tufts University, and University of Florida. Her expertise is at the crossroads of social and developmental psychology, with a focus on the process of understanding other people, empathy, moral development, and gender. Her research has appeared in Psychological Review, Psychological Bulletin, Annual Review of Psychology, Developmental Review, and Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Her book Social development as preference management: How infants, children, and parents get what they want from each other was published by Cambridge University Press (2010). Karniol’s husband, who was a Professor of Aerospace Engineering at the Technion in Haifa, Israel, is also the child of Holocaust survivors and was born in Poland. They raised their two children as Hebrew–English bilingual.

Sabina Čehajić-Clancy is an Associate Professor of Social and Political Psychology at the Sarajevo School of Science and Technology. She holds a PhD in Social Psychology from Sussex University and is affiliated with Stanford University as a former Fulbright Scholar. Čehajić-Clancy is an expert in the area of intergroup reconciliation, for which she has received many dissertation and career awards. Her research integrates theories on intergroup relations, emotion regulation, and moral disengagement, combining the experimental lab studies with field experiments. She has published articles in Psychological Inquiry, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, and Political Psychology, two books, and numerous contributions to edited volumes or encyclopedias. She also serves on editorial boards for Political Psychology and the European Journal of Social Psychology. Her research has been funded by prestigious research councils, among them the Economic and Social Research Council and the British Academy. In addition to her research excellence, she has over fifteen years of experience in working as a consultant for USAID, UN agencies, and other more grassroots-based NGOs in the area of education, peace building, and reconciliation. Her work has also received wide national and international coverage. Website: cehajicsabina.wixsite.com/clancy

Čehajić, S., Brown, R., & Gonzalez, R. (2009). What do I care? Perception of ingroup responsibility and dehumanization as predictors of empathy felt for the victim group. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 12, 715729.Google Scholar
Meyers, M. W., Laurent, S. M., & Hodges, S. D. (2014). Perspective taking instructions and self-other overlap: Different motives for helping. Motivation and Emotion, 38, 224234. doi:10.1007/s11031–013-9377-yGoogle Scholar
Palomares, N. A. (2008). Explaining gender-based language use: Effects of gender identity salience on references to emotion and tentative language in intra- and intergroup contexts. Human Communication Research, 34, 263286.Google Scholar
Ryan, M. K., David, B., & Reynolds, K. J. (2004). Who cares? The effect of gender and context on the self and moral reasoning. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 246255.Google Scholar
Williams, A., O’Driscoll, K., & Moore, C. (2014). The influence of empathic concern on prosocial behavior in children. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 425468. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00425Google Scholar
Zaki, J., & Ochsner, K. N. (2012). The neuroscience of empathy: Progress, pitfalls and promise. Nature Neurosience, 15, 675680. doi:10.1038/nn.3085Google Scholar

References

Albiero, P., Matricardi, G., Speltri, D., & Toso, T. (2009). The assessment of empathy in adolescence: A contribution to the Italian validation of the “Basic Empathy Scale.” Journal of Adolescence, 32, 393408. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2008.01.001Google Scholar
Angerer, S., Glätzle-Rützler, D., Lergetporer, P. & Sutter, M. (2014). Donations, risk attitudes and time preferences: A study on altruism in primary school children. Institute for Labor Economics (IZA) DP No. 8020. Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labor.Google Scholar
Aoláin, F. N., Haynes, D. F., & Cahn, N. (2011). On the frontlines: Gender, war, and the post-conflict process. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Aquino, K., & Reed, A. (2002). The self-importance of moral identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 14231440. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.83.6.Google Scholar
Aradhye, C., Vonk, J., & Arida, D. (2015). Adults’ responsiveness to children’s facial expressions. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 135, 5671. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.02.006Google Scholar
Atkinson, A. B., Backus, P. G., & Mickelwright, J. (2012). Charitable bequests and wealth at death. Institute of Labor Econonics (IZA) DP, #7014. Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labor.Google Scholar
Auerhahn, N. C., & Laub, D. (2018). Against forgiving: The encounter that cannot happen between Holocaust survivors and perpetrators. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 87, 3972. doi:10.1080/00332828.2018.1430401Google Scholar
Auyeung, B., Allison, C., Wheelwright, S., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2012). Development of the adolescent empathy and systemizing quotients. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42, 22252235. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1454-7Google Scholar
Auyeung, B., Wheelwright, S., Allison, C., Atkinson, M., Samarawickrema, N., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2009). The children’s Empathy Quotient and Systemizing Quotient: Sex differences in typical development and in autism spectrum conditions. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39, 15091521. doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0772-xGoogle Scholar
Babchuk, W. A., Hames, R. B., & Thompson, R. A. (1985). Sex differences in the recognition of infant facial expressions of emotion: The primary caretaker hypothesis. Ethology & Sociobiology, 6, 89101. doi:10.1016/0162-3095(85)90002-0Google Scholar
Baillargeon, R. H., Morisset, A., Keenan, K. , Normand, C. L., Jeyaganth, S., Boivin, M., & Tremblay, R. E. (2011) The development of prosocial behaviors in young children: A prospective population-based cohort study. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 172(3), 221251. doi:10.1080/00221325.2010.533719Google Scholar
Bandura, A. (1999). Moral disengagement in the perpetration of inhumanities. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3(3), 193209. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0303_3Google Scholar
Barnett, M. A., Howard, J. A., King, L. M., & Dino, G. A. (198l). Helping behavior and the transfer of empathy. Journal of Social Psychology, 115, 125132.Google Scholar
Barnett, M. A., King, L. M., & Howard, J. A. (1979). Inducing affect about self or other: Effects on generosity in children. Developmental Psychology, 15, 164167.Google Scholar
Baron-Cohen, S. (2001) Theory of mind in normal development and autism. Prisme, 34, 174183.Google Scholar
Baron-Cohen, S. (2003). The essential difference: Male and female brains and the truth about autism. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Baron-Cohen, S. (2005). The empathizing system: A revision of the 1994 model of the mind reading system. In Ellis, B. J. & Bjorklund, D. F. (Eds.), Origins of the social mind: Evolutionary psychology and child development (pp. 468492). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Baron-Cohen, S., Jolliffe, T., Mortimore, C., & Robertson, M. (1997). Another advanced test of theory of mind: Evidence from very high functioning adults with autism or Asperger syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 813822.Google Scholar
Baron-Cohen, S., Richler, J., Bisarya, D., Gurunathan, N., & Wheelwright, S. (2003). The systemizing quotient: An investigation of adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism, and normal sex differences. In Frith, U. & Hill, E. (Eds.), Autism: Mind and brain (pp. 161186). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S., 2004. The empathy quotient (EQ): An investigation of adults with Asperger syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 163175. doi:10.1023/B:JADD.0000022607.19833.00Google Scholar
Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Hill, J., Raste, Y., & Plumb, I. (2001). The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test Revised Version: A study with normal adults, and adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 241251.Google Scholar
Batson, C. D. (1987). Prosocial motivation: Is it ever truly altruistic? In Berkowitz, L. (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 20, pp. 65122). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. doi:10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60412-8Google Scholar
Batson, C. D. (1998). Altruism and prosocial behavior. In Gilbert, D. T., Fiske, S. T., & Gardner, G. L. (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vols. 1–2, pp. 282316). New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Batson, C. D. (2009). Two forms of perspective taking: Imagining how another feels and imagining how you would feel. In Markman, K. D., Klein, W. M. P., & Suhr, J. A. (Eds.), Handbook of imagination and mental simulation (pp. 267279). New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Batson, C. D. (2016). Empathy and altruism. In Leary, M. R. & Brown, K. R. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of hypo-egoic phenomena (pp. 161174.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Batson, C. D., Fultz, J., & Schoenrade, P. A. (1987). Distress and empathy: Two qualitatively distinct vicarious emotions with different emotional consequences. Journal of Personality, 55, 1939.Google Scholar
Baumrind, D. (1986). Sex differences in moral reasoning: Response to Walker’s (1984) conclusion that there are none. Child Development, 57, 511521. doi:10.2307/1130606Google Scholar
Beissert, H. M., & Hasselhorn, M. (2016). Individual differences in moral development: Does intelligence really affect children’s moral reasoning and moral emotions? Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1961. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01961Google Scholar
Bekkers, R., & Ottoni-Wilhelm, M. (2016). Principle of care and giving to help people in need. European Journal of Personality, 30, 240257. doi:10.1002/per.2057Google Scholar
Bem, S. L. (1984) Androgyny and gender schema theory: A conceptual and empirical integration. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 32, 179226.Google Scholar
Bem, S. L., Martyna, W., & Watson, C. (1976). Sex typing and androgyny: Further explorations of the expressive domain. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 10161023.Google Scholar
Bengtsson, H. (2003). Children’s cognitive appraisal of others’ distressful and positive experiences. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27(5), 457466. doi:10.1080/01650250344000073Google Scholar
Bengtsson, H., & Arvidsson, A. (2011). The impact of developing social perspective-taking skills on emotionality in middle and late childhood. Social Development, 20, 353375. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2010.00587.xGoogle Scholar
Berry, M. E. (2018) War, women, and power: From violence to mobilization in Rwanda and Bosnia-Herzegovina. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bird, G., & Viding, E. (2014). The self to other model of empathy: Providing a new framework for understanding empathy impairments in psychopathy, autism, and alexithymia. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 47, 520532. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.09.021Google Scholar
Bluhm, R., Jacobson, A. J., & Maiborm, H. L (2012). Neurofeminism: Issues at the intersection of feminist theory and cognitive science. London: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Bohl, V., & van den Bos, W. (2012). Toward an integrative account of social cognition: Marrying theory of mind and interactionism to study the interplay of Type 1 and Type 2 processes. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, #274. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00274Google Scholar
Boyatzis, C. J., Chazan, E., & Ting, C. Z. (1993). Preschool children’s decoding of facial emotions. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 154, 375382.Google Scholar
Brabec, C. M., Geller, J. D., & Ross, M. J. (2012). An exploration of relationships among measures of social cognition, decision making, and emotional intelligence. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 34(8), 887894. doi:10.1080/13803395.2012.698599Google Scholar
Braza, F., Azurmendi, A., Munoz, M., Carreras, M. R., Braza, P., Garcia, A., … Aın, J. R. (2009). Social cognitive predictors of peer acceptance at age 5 and the moderating effects of gender. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 27, 703716. doi:10.1348/026151008X360666Google Scholar
Brehm, S. S., Powell, L. K, & Coke, J. S. (1984. The effects of empathic instructions upon donating behavior: Sex differences in young children. Sex Roles, 10, 405416. doi:10.1007/BF00287557Google Scholar
Brewer, M. B. (1999). The nature of prejudice: Ingroup love or outgroup hate? Journal of Social Issues, 55, 429444.Google Scholar
Brown, R. (1998). Prejudice: Its social psychology. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Brown, R. (2000). Social identity theory: Past achievements, current problems and future challenges. European Journal of Social Psychology, 30(6), 745778.Google Scholar
Brown, R. & Čehajić, S. (2008). Dealing with the past and facing the future: Mediators of collective guilt and shame in Bosnia and Herzegovina. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38, 669684.Google Scholar
Brownell, C. A., Svetlova, M., Anderson, R., Nichols, R., & Drummond, J. (2012). Socialization of early prosocial behavior: Parents’ talk about emotions is associated with sharing and helping in toddlers. Infancy, 18, 91118. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7078.2012.00125.xGoogle Scholar
Bryant, B. K. (1982) An index of empathy for children and adolescents. Child Development, 53, 413425. doi:10.2307/1128984Google Scholar
Cameron, C. D., & Payne, B. K. (2011). Escaping affect: How motivated emotion regulation creates insensitivity to mass suffering. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 115. doi:10.1037/a0021643Google Scholar
Campbell, R., Elgar, K., Kuntsi, J., Akers, R., Terstegge, J., Coleman, M., & Skuse, D. (2002). The classification of “fear” from faces is associated with face recognition skill in women. Neuropsychologia, 40, 575584.Google Scholar
Canli, T., Desmond, J. E., Zhao, Z., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2002). Sex differences in the neural basis of emotional memories. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 6(99), 10,78910,794. doi:10.1073/pnas.162356599Google Scholar
Capek, M. E. S. (2005). Documenting women’s giving: Biases, barriers, and benefits. In Clift, E. (Ed.), Women, philanthropy, and social change: Visions for a just society (pp. 2960). Medford, MA: Tufts University Press.Google Scholar
Carlo, G., Knight, G. P., Eisenberg, N., & Rotenberg, K. J. (1991). Cognitive processes and prosocial behaviors among children: The role of affective attributions and reconciliations. Developmental Psychology, 27(3), 456461. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.27.3.456Google Scholar
Carlo, G., Roesch, S. C., & Melby, J. (1998). The multiplicative relations of parenting and temperament to prosocial and antisocial behaviors in adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 18(3), 266290. doi:10.1177/0272431698018003003Google Scholar
Carré, A., Stefaniak, N., D’Ambrosio, F., Bensalah, L., & Besche-Richard, C. (2013). The Basic Empathy Scale in Adults (BES-A): Factor structure of a revised form. Psychological Assessment, 25(3), 679691. doi:10.1037/a0032297Google Scholar
Castano, E., Yzerbyt, V., Paladino, M.-P., & Sacchi, S. (2002). I belong, therefore, I exist: Ingroup identification, ingroup entitativity, and ingroup bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(2), 135143. doi:10.1177/0146167202282001Google Scholar
Čavojová, V., Sirota, M., & Belovičová, Z. (2012). Slovak validation of the Basic Empathy Scale in preadolescents. Studia Psychologica, 54, 195208.Google Scholar
Čehajić, S. (2010). Victimhood as an obstacle towards reconciliation. Regional CNA (Center for Non-Violent Action) Conference “Neighbors and not Enemies” held in Sarajevo. April 23–25.Google Scholar
Čehajić, S., & Brown, R. (2008). Not in my name: A social psychological study of antecedents and consequences of acknowledgment of ingroup atrocities. Genocide Studies and Prevention, 3(2), 195212.Google Scholar
Čehajić, S., & Brown, R. (2010). Silencing the past: Effects of intergroup contact on acknowledgement of in-group responsibility. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1, 190196. doi:10.1177/1948550609359088Google Scholar
Čehajić, S., Brown, R., & Castano, E. (2008). Forgive and forget? Antecedents and consequences of intergroup forgiveness in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Political Psychology, 29, 351367. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2008.00634.xGoogle Scholar
Čehajić, S., Brown, R., & Gonzalez, R. (2009). What do I care? Perception of ingroup responsibility and dehumanization as predictors of empathy felt for the victim group. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 12, 715729.Google Scholar
Čehajić-Clancy, S., Goldenberg, A., Halperin, E., & Gross, J. (2016). Social-psychological interventions for intergroup reconciliation: An emotion regulation perspective. Psychological Inquiry, 27, 7388.Google Scholar
Chandler, M. J., & Helm, D. (1984). Developmental changes in the contribution of shared experience to social-role taking competence. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 7, 145156.Google Scholar
Chapman, E., Baron-Cohen, S., Auyeung, B., Knickmeyer, R., Taylor, K., & Hackett, G. (2006). Fetal testosterone and empathy: Evidence from the empathy quotient (EQ) and the “reading the mind in the eyes” test. Social Neuroscience, 1, 135148. doi:10.1080/17470910600992239Google Scholar
Chazan, N. (1992). Israeli women and peace activism. In Swirski, B. & Safir, M. (Eds.), Calling the equality bluff (pp. 152163). New York: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
Christensen, R. K., Nesbit, R., & Agypt, B. (2016). To give or not to give: Employee responses to workplace giving campaigns over time. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 45, 12581275. doi:10.1177/0899764015619704Google Scholar
Christov-Moore, L., & Iacobon,i M. (2016). Self–other resonance, its control and prosocial inclinations: Brain–behavior relationships. Human Brain Mapping, 37, 15441558. doi:10.1002/hbm.23119Google Scholar
Christov-Moore, L., Simpson, E. A, Coudé, G., Grigaityte, K., Iacoboni, M., & Ferrari, P. F. (2014). Empathy: Gender effects in brain and behavior. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 46, 604627. doi:/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.09.001Google Scholar
Cialdini, R. B., Schaller, M., Houlihan, D., Arps, K., Fultz, J., & Beaman, A. L. (1987). Empathy-based helping: Is it selflessly or selfishly motivated? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 749758. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.4.749Google Scholar
Cockburn, C. (1998). The space between us: Negotiating gender and national identities in conflict. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Coie, J. D., & Dorval, B. (1973). Sex differences in the intellectual structure of social interaction skills. Developmental Psychology, 8, 261267.Google Scholar
Conejero, S., Etxbarria, L., & Montero, L. (2014). Gender differences in emotions, forgiveness, and tolerance in relation to political violence. Spanish Journal of Psychology, 17, e9, 115. doi:10.1017/sjp.2014.9Google Scholar
Coutrot, A., Binetti, N., Harrison, C., Mareschal, I., & Johnston, A. (2016). Face exploration dynamics differentiate men and women. Journal of Vision, 16(14), 119. doi:10.1167/16.14.16Google Scholar
Croson, R., & Buchan, N. (1999). Gender and culture: International experimental evidence from trust games. American Economic Review, 89, 386391.Google Scholar
D’Ambrosio, F., Olivier, M., Didon, D., & Besche, C. (2009). The Basic Empathy Scale: A French validation of a measure of empathy in youth. Personality and Individual Differences, 46, 160165. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.020Google Scholar
Davis, M. H. (1983a). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113126. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113Google Scholar
Davis, M. H. (1983b). Empathic concern and the Muscular Dystrophy Telethon: Empathy as a multidimensional construct. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 9, 223229.Google Scholar
Davis, M. H. (1983c). The effects of dispositional empathy on emotional reactions and helping: A multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality, 51, 166184.Google Scholar
Davis, M. H. (1996). Empathy: A social psychological approach. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Davis, M. H., Conklin, L., Smith, A., & Luce, C. (1996). Effect of perspective taking on the cognitive representation of persons: A merging of self and other. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(4), 713726. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.4.713Google Scholar
Decety, J,, & Ickes, W. (2009). The social neuroscience of empathy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Decety, J., & Jackson, P.,L. (2006). A social-neuroscience perspective on empathy. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 5458. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2006.00406.xGoogle Scholar
Decety, J., & Lamm, C. (2006). Empathy and intersubjetivity. In Cacioppo, J. T. & Berntsen, G. G. (Eds.), Handbook of neuroscience for the behavioral sciences (Vol. 2, pp. 940–957). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Decety, J., & Moriguchi, Y. (2007). The empathic brain and its dysfunction in psychiatric populations: Implications for intervention across different clinical conditions. BioPsychoSocial Medicine, 1, 22. doi:10.1186/1751-0759-1-22Google Scholar
Declerck, C. H., & Bogaert, S. (2008). Social value orientation: Related to empathy and the ability to read the mind in the eyes. Journal of Social Psychology, 148(6), 711726. doi:10.3200/SOCP.148.6.711-726Google Scholar
del Barrio, V.. Aluja, A., & García, L. F. (2004). Bryant’s empathy index for children and adolescents: Psychometric properties in the Spanish language. Psychological Reports, 95, 257262.Google Scholar
Denham, S. A., Neal, K., Wilson, B. J., Pockering, S., & Boyatzis, C. J. (2005). Emotional development and forgiveness in children: Emerging evidence. In Worthington, E. L. Jr. (Ed.), Handbook of forgiveness (pp. 127142). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
de Wied, M., Branje, J. T., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2007). Empathy and conflict resolution in friendship relations among adolescents. Aggressive Behavior, 33, 4855. doi:10.1002/ab.20166Google Scholar
de Wied, M., Maas, C., van Goozen, S., Vermande, M., Engels., R., Meeus, W., … Goudena, P. (2007). Bryant’s Empathy Index: A closer examination of its internal structure, European Journal of Personality Assessment, 23, 99104. doi:10.1027/1015-5759.23.2.Google Scholar
Dimberg, U., & Lundquist, L.-O. (1990). Gender differences in facial reactions to facial expressions. Biological Psychology, 30, 151159. doi:10.1016/0301-0511(90)90024-QGoogle Scholar
Dixon, J. A., & Moore, F. (1990). The development of perspective taking: Understanding differences in information and weighting. Child Development, 61, 15021513. doi:10.2307/1130759Google Scholar
Doherty, R. W., Orimoto, L., Singelis, T. M., Hatfield, E., & Hebb, J. (1995). Emotional contagion: Gender and occupational differences. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19, 355371. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1995.tb00080.xGoogle Scholar
Drolet, A. L., & Morris, M. W. (2000). Rapport in conflict resolution: Accounting for how face-to-face contact fosters mutual cooperation in mixed-motive conflicts. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 2650.Google Scholar
Eccles, J. S., Jacobs, J. E., & Harold, R. D. (1990). Gender role stereotypes, expectancy effects, and parents’ socialization of gender differences. Journal of Social Issues, 46, 183201. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1990.tb01929.xGoogle Scholar
Eckel, C. C., & Grossman, P. J. (1998). Are women less selfish than men? Evidence from dictator experiments. Economic Journal, 108, 726735.Google Scholar
Einolf, C. J., (2011). Gender differences in the correlates of volunteering and charitable giving. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40, 10921112. doi:10.1177/0899764010385949Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N. (1986). Altruistic emotion, cognition, and behavior. Hove: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Carlo, C., Murphy, B., & Van Court, P. (1995). Prosocial development in late adolescence: A longitudintal study. Child Development, 66, 11791197.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., Guthrie, I. K., Murphy, B. C., & Shepard, S. A. (2005). Age changes in prosocial responding and moral reasoning in adolescence and early adulthood. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 15(3), 235260. doi:10.1111/j.l532-7795.2005.00095.xGoogle Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Bustamante, D., Mathy, R. M., Miller, P. A., & Lindholm, E. (1988a). Differentiation of vicariously induced emotional reactions in children. Developmental Psychology, 24(2), 237246. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.24.2.237Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Murphy, B., Karbon, M., Smith, M., & Maszk, P. (1996). The relations of children’s dispositional empathy-related responding to their emotionality, regulation, and social functioning. Developmental Psychology, 32(2), 195209. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.32.2.195Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Guthrie, I. K., Murphy, B. C., Shepard, S. A., Cumberland, A., & Carlo, G. (1999). Consistency and development of prosocial dispositions: A longitudinal study. Child Development, 70, 13601372.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., & Lennon, R. (1983). Sex differences in empathy and related capacities. Psychological Bulletin, 94, 100131. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.94.1.100Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Miller, P. A., Schaller, M., Fabes, R. A., Fultz, J., Shell, R., & Shea, C. L. (1989). The role of sympathy and altruistic personality traits in helping: A reexamination. Journal of Personality, 57, 4167.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Miller, P. A., Shell, R., McNalley, S., & Shea, C. (1991). Prosocial development in adolescence: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 27, 849857.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Schaller, M., Miller, P. A. Fultz, J., Fabes, R. A., & Shell, R. (1988b). Gender-related traits and helping in a nonemergency situation. Sex Roles, 19, 605618.Google Scholar
El-Bushra, J. (2007). Feminism, gender and women’s peace activism. Development and Change, 38, 131147. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7660.2007.00406.xGoogle Scholar
Endendijk, J. J., Groenveld, M. G., van Berkel, S. R., Hallers-Haalboom, E. T., Mesman, J., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2013). Gender stereotypes in the family context: Mothers, fathers, and siblings. Sex Roles, 68, 570590. doi:10.1007/s11199-013-0265-4Google Scholar
Enright, R. D., & the Human Development Study Group. (1991). The moral development of forgiveness. In Kurtines, W. & Gerwitz, J. (Eds.), Handbook of moral behavior and development (pp. 123152). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Epley, N,, Keysar, B,, Van Boven, L,, & Gilovich, T. (2004). Perspective taking as egocentric anchoring and adjustment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 327339.Google Scholar
Erdle, S., Sansom, M., Cole, M.,R., & Neapy, N. (1992). Sex differences in personality correlates of helping behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 931936.Google Scholar
Evaldsson, A.-C. (2007). Accounting for friendship: Moral ordering and category membership in preadolescent girls’ relational talk. Research on Language and Social Interaction, 40, 377404. doi:10.1080/08351810701471377Google Scholar
Farver, J. A. M., & Brandstetter, W. H. (1994). Preschoolers’ prosocial responses to their peers’ distress. Developental Psychology, 30, 334341.Google Scholar
Fincham, F. D., Hall, J. H., & Beach, S. R. H. (2005). ’Til lack of forgiveness doth us part: Forgiveness in marriage. In Worthington, E. L. (Ed.), Handbook of forgiveness (pp. 207226). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Fincham, F. D., Hall, J. H., & Beach, S. R. H. (2006). Forgiveness in marriage: Current status and future directions. Family Relations, 55(4), 415427. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2005.callf.x-i1Google Scholar
Fine, J. G., Semrud-Clikeman, M., & Zhu, D. C. (2009). Gender differences in BOLD activation to face photographs and video vignettes. Behavioural Brain Research, 201, 137146. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2009.02.009Google Scholar
Friesdorf, R., Conway, P., & Gawronski, B. (2015). Gender differences in rsponses to moral dilemmas: A process dissociation analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41, 696713. doi:10.1177/0146167215575731Google Scholar
Gaertner, S., & Dovidio, J. F. (2014). Reducing intergroup bias: The common ingroup identity model. New York: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Galinsky, A. D., Magee, J. C., Inesi, M. E., & Gruenfeld, D. H. (2006). Power and perspectives not taken. Psychological Science, 17, 10681074. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01824.xGoogle Scholar
Galinsky, A. D., Ku, G., & Wang, C. S. (2005). Perspective-taking and selfother overlap: Fostering social bonds and facilitating social coordination. Group Process and Intergroup Relations, 8, 109124.Google Scholar
Galinsky, A. D., & Moskowitz, G. B. (2000). Perspective-taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 708724.Google Scholar
Gallese, V. (2005). “Being like me”: Selfother identity, mirror neurons, and empathy. In Hurley, S. & Chater, N. (Eds.), Perspective on imitation: From neuroscience to social science, Vol. 1: Mechanisms of imitation and imitation in animals (pp. 101119). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Garaigordobil, M. (2009). A comparative analysis of empathy in childhood and adolescence: Gender differences and associated socio-emotional variables. International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy, 9, 217235.Google Scholar
Gardner, M. R., Sorhus, I., Edmonds, C. J., & Potts, R. (2012). Sex differences in components of imagined perspective transformation. Acta Psychologica, 40, 16. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.02.002Google Scholar
Geng, Y., Xia, D., & Qin, B. (2012). The Basic Empathy Scale: A Chinese validation of a measure of empathy in adolescents. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 43, 499510. doi:10.1007/s10578–011-0278-6Google Scholar
George, D., Carroll, P., Kersnick, R., & Calderon, K. (1998). Gender-related patterns of helping among friends. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 685704.Google Scholar
Gianmarco, E. A., & Vernon, P. A. (2014). Vengeance and the Dark Triad: The role of empathy and perspective taking in trait forgivingness. Personality and Individual Differences, 67, 2329. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.02.010Google Scholar
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Gilligan, C. (1995). Hearing the difference: Theorizing connection. Hypatia, 10, 120127.Google Scholar
Gilligan, C. (2011). Joining the resistance. Oxford: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Gilligan, C., & Attanucci, J. (1988). Two moral orientations: Gender differences and similarities. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 34, 223237.Google Scholar
Gini, G., Albiero, P., Benelli, B., & Altoe, G. (2007). Does empathy predict adolescents’ bullying and defending behavior? Aggressive Behavior, 33, 467476. doi:10.1002/ab.20204Google Scholar
Girbau, D. (2001). Children’s referential communication failure: The ambiguity and abbreviation of message. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 20, 8189. doi:10.1177/0261927X01020001004Google Scholar
Gobodo-Madikizela, P. (2002). Remorse, forgiveness, and rehumanization: Stories from South Africa. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 42(1), 7-32. doi:10.1177/0022167802421002Google Scholar
Gobodo-Madikizela, P. (2008). Empathetic repair after mass trauma: When vengeance is arrested. European Journal of Social Theory, 11, 331350. doi:10.1177/13684310080092566Google Scholar
Gobodo-Madikizela, P. (2011). Intersubjectivity and embodiment: Exploring the role of the maternal in the language of forgiveness and reconciliation. Signs, 36, 541550.Google Scholar
Goldberg, S. (2000). Attachment and development. London: Edward Arnold.Google Scholar
Goldman, A. I. (2006). Simulating minds: The philosophy, psychology, and neuroscience of mindreading. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gordon, K. C., Baucom, D. H., & Snyder, D. K. (2000). The use of forgiveness in marital therapy. In M. E. McCullough, K. I. Pargament, & C. E. Thoresen (Eds.), Forgiveness: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 203227). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Grimshaw, G. M., Bulman-Fleming, M. B., & Ngo, C. (2004). A signal-detection analysis of sex differences in the perception of emotional faces. Brain and Cognition, 54, 248250. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2004.02.029Google Scholar
Gronholm, P. C., Flynn, M., Edmonds, C. J., & Gardner, M. R. (2012). Empathic and non-empathic routes to visuospatial perspective-taking. Consciousness and Cognition, 21, 494500. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2011.12.004Google Scholar
Grusec, J. E., & Redler, E. (1980). Attribution, reinforcement, and altruism: A developmental analysis. Developmental Psychology, 16(5), 525534. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.16.5.525Google Scholar
Gubler, J., Halperin, E., & Hirschberger, G. (2015). Humanizing the outgroup in contexts of protracted intergroup conflict. Journal of Experimental Political Science, 2(1), 3646.Google Scholar
Guillem, F., & Mograss, M. (2005). Gender differences in memory processing: Evidence from event-related potentials to faces. Brain and Cognition, 57(1), 8492. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2004.08.026Google Scholar
Güth, W., Schmidt, C., & Sutter, M. (2007). Bargaining outside the lab – a newspaper experiment of a three-person ultimatum game. Economic Journal, 117(518), 449469. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0297.2007.02025.xGoogle Scholar
Haan, E. R., & Garrett, M. K. (2017). Preschoolers’ moral judgments of environmental harm and the influence of perspective taking. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 53, 1119.Google Scholar
Haan, N. (1985). With regard to Walker (1984) on Sex “Differences” in Moral Reasoning. (Mimeograph.) University of California, Berkeley, Institute of Human Development.Google Scholar
Haeri, M., & Puechguirbal, N. (2010). From helplessness to agency: Examining the plurality of women’s experiences in armed conflict. International Review of the Red Cross, 92, #877.Google Scholar
Hall, J. K., Hutton, S. B., & Morgan, M. J. (2010). Sex differences in scanning faces: Does attention to the eyes explain female superiority in facial expression recognition? Cognition and Emotion, 24, 629637. doi:10.1080/02699930902906882Google Scholar
Halpern, J. & Weinstein, H. M. (2004). Rehumanizing the other: Empathy and reconciliation. Human Rights Quarterly, 26, 561583.Google Scholar
Hampson, E., van Anders, S. M., & Mullin, L. I. (2006). A female advantage in the recognition of emotional facial expressions: Test of an evolutionary hypothesis. Evolution & Human Behavior, 27, 401416. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2006.05.002Google Scholar
Hardy, S. A. (2006). Identity, reasoning, and emotion: An empirical comparison of three sources of moral motivation. Motivation and Emotion, 30, 207215. doi:10.1007/s11031-006-9034-9Google Scholar
Heal, J. (1998). Co-cognition and off-line simulation: Two ways of understanding the simulation approach. Mind and Language, 14, 477498.Google Scholar
Held, V. (2006). The ethics of care: Personal, political, and global. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Held, V. (2014). The ethics of care as normative guidance: Comment on Gilligan. Journal of Social Philosophy, 45, 107115.Google Scholar
Helms, E. (2013). Innocence and victimhood: Gender, nation, and women's activism in post-war Bosnia-Herzegovina. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Herlitz, A., & Lovén, J. (2013). Sex differences and the own-gender bias in face recognition: A meta-analytic review. Visual Cognition, 21, 13061336. doi:10.1080/13506285.2013.823140Google Scholar
Herman, J. L. (2005). Justice from the victim’s perspective. Violence Against Women, 11, 571602. doi:10.1177/1077801205274450Google Scholar
Hinnant, J. B., & O’Brien, M. (2007). Cognitive and emotional control and perspective taking and their relations to empathy in 5-year-old children. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 168, 301322. doi:10.3200/GNTP.168.3.301-322Google Scholar
Hoffman, M. L. (2000). Empathy and moral development: Implications for caring and justice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hoffman, M. L., & Levine, L. E. (1976). Early sex differences in empathy. Developmental Psychology, 12, 557558.Google Scholar
Holmgren, R. A., Eisenberg, N., & Fabes, R. A. (1998). The relations of children’s situational empathy-related emotions to dispositional prosocial behavior. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 22, 169193.Google Scholar
Holstein, C. S. (1976). Irreversible, stepwise sequence in the development of moral judgment: A longitudinal study of males and females. Child Development, 47, 5161.Google Scholar
Horgan, T. G., & Smith, J. L. (2006). Interpersonal reasons for interpersonal perceptions: Gender-incongruent purpose goals and nonverbal judgment accuracy. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 30, 127140. doi:10.1007/s10919-006-0012-4Google Scholar
Hui, E. K. P., & Chau, T. S. (2009). The impact of a forgiveness intervention with Hong Kong Chinese children hurt in interpersonal relationships. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 37, 141156. doi:10.1080/03069880902728572Google Scholar
Hundhammer, T., & Mussweiler, T. (2012). How sex puts you in gendered shoes: Sexuality-priming leads to gender-based self-perception and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103(1), 176193. doi:10.1037/a0028121Google Scholar
Iacoboni, M. (2009). Imitation, empathy, and mirror neurons. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 653670. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163604Google Scholar
Ibáñez, A, Huepe, D., Gempp, R., Gutiérrez, V., Rivera-Rei, A., & Toledo, M. I. (2013). Empathy, sex and fluid intelligence as predictors of theory of mind. Personality and Individual Differences, 54, 616621. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.11.022Google Scholar
Ickes, W. (1993). Empathic accuracy. Journal of Personality, 61(4), 587610. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1993.tb00783.xGoogle Scholar
Ickes, W., Stinson, L., Bissonnette, V., & Garcia, S. (1990). Naturalistic social cognition: Empathic accuracy in mixed-sex dyads. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 730742. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.59.4.730Google Scholar
Ickes, W., Buysse, A., Pham, H., Rivers, K., Erikson, J.R., Hancock, M., … Gesn, P. R. (2000a). On the difficulty of distinguishing perceivers: A social relations analysis of empathic accuracy data. Personal Relationships, 7, 219234.Google Scholar
Ickes, W., Gesn, P. R., & Graham, T. (2000b). Gender differences in empathic accuracy: Differential ability or differential motivation? Personal Relationships, 7, 95109.Google Scholar
Israelashvili, J. (2016). From similarity to empathy: Two dimensions of self–other similarity are involved in the process of empathy. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Tel Aviv University.Google Scholar
Israelashvili, M., & Karniol, R. (2018). Testing alternative models of dispositional empathy: The Affect-to-Cognition (ACM) versus the Cognition-to-Affect (CAM) Model. Personality & Individual Differences, 121, 161169.Google Scholar
Jaffee, S., & Hyde, J. S. (2000). Gender differences in moral orientation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 703726.Google Scholar
Johnson, F. L. (1977). Role taking and referential communication abilities in first- and third-grade children. Human Communication Research, 3, 135145. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.1977.tb00512.xGoogle Scholar
Johnson, H. D., Wernli, M. A., & LaVoie, J. C. (2013). Situational, interpersonal, and intrapersonal characteristic associations with adolescent conflict forgiveness. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 174, 291315. doi:10.1080/00221325.2012.670672Google Scholar
Jolliffe, D., & Farrington, D. P. (2006). Development and validation of the basic empathy scale. Journal of Adolescence, 29, 589611.Google Scholar
Juujärvi, S., Myyry, L., & Pesso, K. (2010). Does care reasoning make a difference? Relations between care, justice and dispositional empathy. Journal of Moral Education, 39(4), 469489. doi:10.1080/03057240.2010.521381Google Scholar
Karniol, R. (1990). Reading people’s minds: A transformation rule model for predicting others’ thoughts and feelings. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 23, 211247.Google Scholar
Karniol, R. (2003). Egocentrism versus protocentrism: The status of self in social prediction. Psychological Review, 110, 564580.Google Scholar
Karniol, R. (2010). Social development as preference management: How infants, children and parents get what they want from one another. Cambridge: Cambridge University PressGoogle Scholar
Karniol, R., Gabay, R., Ochion, Y., & Harari, Y. (1998). Is gender or gender-role orientation a better predictor of empathy in adolescence? Sex Roles, 39, 4560.Google Scholar
Karniol, R., Grosz, E., & Schorr, I. (2003). Caring, gender role orientation, and volunteering. Sex Roles, 49, 1119. doi:10.1023/A:1023953401662Google Scholar
Karylowski, J. J., & Mrozinski, B. (2018). On using what we know about ourselves in thinking about others: Not so fast. Self and Identity, 17(4), 382393. doi:10.1080/15298868.2017.1414716Google Scholar
Keysers, C., & Fadiga, L. (2008). The mirror neuron system: New frontiers. Social Neuroscience, 3, 193198. doi:10.1080/17470910802408513Google Scholar
Kienbaum, J. (2014). The development of sympathy from 5 to 7 years: Increase, decline, or stability? A longitudinal study. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, #468.Google Scholar
Kimmes, J. G., & Durtschi, J. A. (2016). Forgiveness in romantic relationships: The roles of attachment, empathy, and attributions. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 42, 645658. doi:10.1111/jmft.12171Google Scholar
Kirkland, R. A., Peterson, E., Baker, C. A., Miller, S., & Poulos, S. (2013). Meta-analysis reveals adult female superiority in “Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test.” North American Journal of Psychology, 15, 121146.Google Scholar
Klein, K. J., & Hodges, S. D. (1999). Gender differences, motivation, and empathic accuracy: When it pays to understand. Poster presented at the annual convention of the American Psychological Society, Denver.Google Scholar
Klein, K. J., & Hodges, S. D. (2001). Gender differences, motivation, and empathic accuracy: When it pays to understand. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 720730. doi:10.1177/0146167201276007Google Scholar
Knight, G. P., Johnson, L. G., Carlo, G., & Eisenberg, N. (1994). A multiplicative model of the dispositional antecedents of a prosocial behavior: Predicting more of the people more of the time. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 178183. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.66.1.178Google Scholar
Koch, K., Pauly, K., Kellermann, T., Seiferth, N. Y., Reske, M., Backes, V., … Habel, U. (2007). Gender differences in the cognitive control of emotion: An fMRI study. Neuropsychologia, 45, 27442754. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.04.012Google Scholar
Kohlberg, L. (1969). Stage and sequence: The cognitive development approach to socialization. In Goslin, D. A. (Ed.), Handbook of socialization theory and research (pp. 347480). Chicago: Rand McNally.Google Scholar
Kohlberg, L., & Kramer, R. (1969). Continuities and discontinuities in childhood and adult moral development. Human Development, 12, 93120.Google Scholar
Konstam, V., Holmes, W., & Levine, B. (2003). Empathy, selfism, and coping as elements of the psychology of forgiveness: A preliminary study. Counseling and Values, 47,172183.Google Scholar
Kraus, M. W., Côté, S., & Keltner, D. (2010). Social class, contextualism, and empathic accuracy. Psychological Science, 21, 17161723.Google Scholar
Krauss, R. M., & Glucksberg, S. (1969). The development of communication: Competence as a function of age. Child Development, 40(1), 255266. doi:10.2307/1127172Google Scholar
Kyratzis, A., & Guo, J. (2001). Preschool girls’ and boys’ verbal conflict strategies in the United States and China. Research on Language and Social Interaction, 34, 4574. doi:10.1207/S15327973RLSI3401_3Google Scholar
Lam, C. B., Solmeyer, A. R., & McHale, S. M. (2012). Sibling relationships and empathy across the transition to adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 16571670. doi:10.1007/s10964-012-9781-8Google Scholar
Lamm, C., Nusbaum, H. C., Meltzoff, A. N., & Decety, J. (2007). What are you feeling? Using functional magnetic resonance imaging to assess the modulation of sensory and affective responses during empathy for pain. PLoS One, 2(12), e1292, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001292Google Scholar
Langdale, C. J. (1983). Moral orientations and moral development: The analysis of care and justice reasoning across different dilemmas in females and males from childhood through adulthood. Dissertation Abstracts International, 44(6-B), 1988.Google Scholar
Laub, D., & Auerhahn, N. C. (1989). Failed empathy a central theme in the survivor’s holocaust experience. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 6(4), 377400. doi:10.1037/0736-9735.6.4.377Google Scholar
Laurent, S. M., & Hodges, S. D. (2009). Gender roles and empathic accuracy: The role of communion in reading minds. Sex Roles, 60, 387398. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9544-xGoogle Scholar
Laursen, B., & Collins, W. A. (1994). Interpersonal conflict during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 197209. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.2.197Google Scholar
Lawrence, E. J., Shaw, P., Baker, D., Baron-Cohen, S., & David, A. S. (2004). Measuring empathy: Reliability and validity of the Empathy Quotient. Psychological Medicine, 34, 911924.Google Scholar
Lawrence, K., Campbell, R., & Skuse, D. (2015). Age, gender, and puberty influence the development of facial emotion recognition. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, #761. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00761Google Scholar
Lee, T. M. C., Liu, H.-L., Hoosain, R., Liao, W.-T., Wu, C.-T., Yuen, K. S. L., … Gao, J.-H. (2002). Gender differences in neural correlates of recognition of happy and sad faces in humans assessed by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Neuroscience Letters, 333, 1316. doi:10.1016/S0304-3940(02)00965-5Google Scholar
Lee, Y.-K., & Chang, C.-T. (2007). Who gives what to charity? Characteristics affecting donation behavior. Social Behavior and Personality, 35, 11731180.Google Scholar
Lennon, R. & Eisenberg, N. (1987). Gender and age differences in empathy and sympathy. In Eisenberg, N. & Strayer, J. (Eds.), Empathy and its development (pp. 19217). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Leslie, A. M. (1994). ToMM, ToBy, and Agency: Core architecture and domain specificity. In L. A. Hirschfeld & S. A. Gelman (Eds.), Mapping the mind: Domain specificity in cognition and culture (pp. 119148). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Leslie, L. M., Snyder, M., & Glomb, T. M., (2013). Who gives? Multilevel effects of gender and ethnicity on workplace charitable giving. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98, 4962. doi:10.1037/a002Google Scholar
Lever, J. (1976). Sex differences in the games children play. Social Problems, 23, 479488.Google Scholar
Leyens, J. P., Paladino, P. M., Rodriguez, R. T., Vaes, J., Demoulin, S., Rodriguez, A. P., & Gaunt, R. (2000). The emotional side of prejudice: The role of secondary emotions. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 186197.Google Scholar
Light, S. N., Coan, J. A., Zahn-Waxler, C., Frye, C., Goldsmith, H. H., & Davidson, R. J. (2009). Empathy is associated with dynamic change in prefrontal brain electrical activity during positive emotion in children. Child Development, 80, 12101231. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01326.x.Google Scholar
Litvak-Miller, W., McDougall, D., & Romney, D. M. (1997). The structure of empathy during middle childhood and its relationship to prosocial behavior. Genetic, Social & General Psychology Monographs, 123, 303324.Google Scholar
Lovén, J., Herlitz, A., & Rehnman, J. (2011). Women’s own-gender bias in face recognition memory: The role of attention at encoding. Experimental Psychology, 58, 333340. doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000100Google Scholar
Lucas-Molina, B., de Albéniz Iturriaga, A. P., Giménez-Dasí, M., & Seoane, G. M. (2016). Bryant’s Empathy Index: Structure and measurement invariance across gender in a sample of primary school-aged children. Spanish Journal of Psychology, 19, e44, 18. doi:10.1027/1015-5759.23.2Google Scholar
Lukič, J. (2011). Protected by friendship and caring: Women and peace in the former Yugoslav countries. Signs, 36, 532541.Google Scholar
Luo, P., Wang, J., Huang, S., Xie, M., Deng, L., Fang, J., … Zheng, X. (2015). Gender differences in affective sharing and self–other distinction during empathic neural responses to others’ sadness. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 9, 312322.Google Scholar
Lyons, N. (1983). Two perspectives: On self, relationship, and morality. Harvard Educational Review, 53, 125145.Google Scholar
MacEvoy, J. P., & Asher, S. R. (2012). When friends disappoint: Boys’ and girls’ responses to transgressions of friendship expectations. Child Development, 83, 104119. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01685.xGoogle Scholar
Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., Milne, A. B., Thorn, T. M. J., & Castelli, L. (1997). On the activation of social stereotypes: The moderating role of processing objectives. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 471489.Google Scholar
Macrae, C. N., Mitchell, J. P., & Pendry, L. F. (2002). What’s in a forename? Cue familiarity and stereotypical thinking. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 186–193. doi:10.1006/jesp.2001.1496Google Scholar
Magen, E., & Konasewich, P. A. (2011). Women support providers are more susceptible than men to emotional contagion following brief supportive interactions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35, 611616. doi:10.1177/0361684311423912Google Scholar
Main, A., Zhou, Q., Liew, J., & Lee, C. (2017). Prosocial tendencies among Chinese American children in immigrant families: Links to cultural and socio-demographic factors and psychological adjustment. Social Development, 26, 165184. doi:10.1111/sode.12182Google Scholar
Malti, T., Gasser, L., & Gutzwiller-Helfenfinger, E. (2010). Children’s interpretive understanding, moral judgments, and emotion attributions: Relations to social behaviour. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 28, 275292. doi:10.1348/026151009X403838Google Scholar
Malti, T., Gummerum, M., Keller, M., & Buchmann, M. (2009). Children’s moral motivation, sympathy, and prosocial behavior. Child Development, 80, 442460.Google Scholar
Maner, J. K., Luce, C. L., Neuberg, S. L., Cialdini, R. B., Brown, S., & Sagarin, B. J. (2002). The effects of perspective taking on motivations for helping: Still no evidence for altruism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 16011610. doi:10.1177/014616702237586Google Scholar
Markstrom, C. A., Huey, E., Stiles, B. M., & Krause, A. L. (2010). Frameworks of caring and helping in adolescence: Are empathy, religiosity, and spirituality related constructs? Youth & Society, 42, 5980. doi:10.1177/0044118X09333644Google Scholar
Martin, D., & Macrae, C. N. (2007). A face with a cue: exploring the inevitability of person categorization. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 806816. doi:10.1002/ejsp.445Google Scholar
Mayberry, M. L., & Espelage, D. L. (2007). Associations among empathy, social competence, & reactive/proactive aggression subtypes. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 787798. doi:10.1007/s10964-006-9113-yGoogle Scholar
Mazar, N., Amir, O., & Ariely, D. (2008). The dishonesty of honest people: A theory of self-concept maintenance. Journal of Marketing Research, 45, 633644.Google Scholar
McAuliffe, W. H. B., Forster, D. E., Philippe, J., & McCullough, M. E. (2018). Digital altruists: Resolving key questions about the empathy-altruism hypothesis in an internet sample. Emotion, 18, 493503. doi:10.1037/emo00003Google Scholar
McCall, C., & Dasgupta, N. (2007). The malleability of men’s gender self-concept. Self and Identity, 6, 173188, doi:10.1080/15298860601115328Google Scholar
McCullough, M., Worthington, E., & Rachal, K. (1997). Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 321336.Google Scholar
McGrath, M. P., & Zook, J. N. (2011). Maternal control of girls versus boys: Relations to empathy and persuasive style with peers. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20, 5765. doi:10.1007/s10826-010-9377-4Google Scholar
McManis, M. H., Bradley, M. M., Berg, W. K., Cuthbert, B. N., & Lang, P. J. (2001). Emotional reactions in children: Verbal, physiological, and behavioral responses to affective pictures. Psychophysiology, 38, 222231.Google Scholar
Mehrabian, A., & Epstein, N. (1972). A measure of emotional empathy. Journal of Personality, 40, 525543.Google Scholar
Mellström, C., & Johannesson, M. (2008). Crowding out in blood donation? Was Titmuss right? Journal of the European Economic Association, 6, 845863.Google Scholar
Mercadillo, R. E., Dias, J. L., Pascaye, E. H., & Barrios, F. A. (2011). Perception of suffering and compassion experience: Brain gender disparities. Brain and Cognition, 6, 514. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2011.03.019Google Scholar
Mesch, D. J., Brown, M. S., Moore, Z. I., & Hayat, A. D. (2011). Gender differences in charitable giving. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 16, 342355. doi:10.1002/nvsm.432Google Scholar
Mesch, D. J., Rooney, P. M., Steinberg, K. S., & Denton, B., (2006). The effects of race, gender, and marital status on giving and volunteering in Indiana. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 35, 565587.Google Scholar
Meyers, M. W., Laurent, S. M., & Hodges, S. D. (2014). Perspective taking instructions and selfother overlap: Different motives for helping. Motivation and Emotion, 38, 224234. doi:10.1007/s11031–013-9377-yGoogle Scholar
Midlarsky, E., Jones, S. F., & Corley, R. P. (2005). Personality correlates of heroic rescue during the Holocaust. Journal of Personality, 73, 907934.Google Scholar
Miller, A. J., Worthington, E. L. Jr., & McDaniel, M. A. (2008). Gender and forgiveness: A meta-analytic review and research agenda. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27, 843876. doi:10.1521/jscp.2008.27.8.843Google Scholar
Miller, P. A., Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., & Shell, R. (1996). Relations of moral reasoning and vicarious emotion to young children’s prosocial behavior toward peers and adults. Developmental Psychology, 32(2), 210219. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.32.2.210Google Scholar
Moeschberger, S. L., Dixon, D. N, Niens, U., & Cairns, E. (2005). Forgiveness in Northern Ireland: A Model for peace in the midst of the ‘Troubles’. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 11(2), 199214. doi:10.1207/s15327949pac1102_5Google Scholar
Mohr, C., Rowe, A. C., & Blanke, O. (2010). The influence of sex and empathy on putting oneself in the shoes of others. British Journal of Psychology, 101, 277291. doi:10.1348/000712609X457450Google Scholar
Monroe, K. R., & Epperson, C. (1994). But what else could I do? Choice, identity, and cognitive-perceptual theory. Political Psychology, 15, 201226.Google Scholar
Montirosso, R., Peverelli, M., Frigerio, E., Crespi, M., & Borgatti, R. (2010). The development of dynamic facial expression recognition at different intensities in 4- to 18-year-olds. Social Development, 19, 7192. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2008.00527.xGoogle Scholar
Moore, M., & Beazley, S. (1996). Split family life. In M. Moore, J. Sixsmith, & K. Knowles (Eds.), Children’s reflections on family life (pp. 6680). London: Falmer Press.Google Scholar
Murphy, B. C., & Eisenberg, N. (2002). An integrative examination of peer conflict: Children’s reported goals, emotions, and behaviors. Social Development, 11, 534557.Google Scholar
Nelson, J., & Aboud, E. (1985). The resolution of social conflict between friends. Child Development, 56, 10091017.Google Scholar
Nelson, N. L., & Russell, J. A. (2011). Putting motion in emotion: Do dynamic presentations increase preschoolers’ recognition of emotion? Cognitive Development, 26, 248259. doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2011.06.001Google Scholar
Newcombe, N. (1989). The development of spatial perspective taking. In Reese, H. W. (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (pp. 203247). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Nichols, S. R., Svetlova, M., & Brownell, C. A. (2009). The role of social understanding and empathic disposition in young children’s responsiveness to distress in parents and peers. Cognition, Brain, Behavior, 13, 449478.Google Scholar
Niec, L. N., & Russ, S. W. (2002). Children's internal representations, empathy and fantasy play: A validity study of the SCORS-Q. Psychological Assessment, 14(3), 331338. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.14.3.331Google Scholar
Noddings, N. (2002). Educating moral people: A caring alternative to character education. New York: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
Noddings, N. (2010). Maternal factor: Two paths to morality. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Noor, M., Brown, R. J., & Prentice, G. (2008). Precursors and mediators of intergroup reconciliation in Northern Ireland: A new model. British Journal of Social Psychology, 47, 481489.Google Scholar
Oberman, L. M., Hubbard, E. M., McCleery, J. P., Altschuler, E. L., Ramachandran, V. S., & Pineda, J. A. (2005). EEG evidence for mirror neuron dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders. Cognitive Brain Research, 24, 190198.Google Scholar
Oudraat de Jonge, C. (2013). NSCR 1325: Conundrums and opportunties. International Interactons, 39(4) 612619.Google Scholar
Paleari, F. G., Regalia, C., & Fincham, F. D. (2009). Measuring offence-specific forgiveness in marriage: The Marital Offence-Specific Forgiveness Scale (MOFS). Psychological Assessment, 21, 194209.Google Scholar
Palomares, N. A. (2008). Explaining gender-based language use: Effects of gender identity salience on references to emotion and tentative language in intra- and intergroup contexts. Human Communication Research, 34, 263286.Google Scholar
Paquette, J. A., & Underwood, M. K. (1999). Gender differences in young adolescents’ experiences of peer victimization: Social and physical aggression. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 45(2), 242266.Google Scholar
Pearson, A., Ropar, D., & Hamilton, A. F.. de C. (2013). A review of visual perspective taking in autism spectrum disorder. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, Article 652. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00652Google Scholar
Perner, J., & Wimmer, H. (1985). “John thinks that Mary thinks that …” Attribution of second-order beliefs by 5- to 1O-year-old children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 39, 437471.Google Scholar
Piper, G., & Schnepf, S. V. (2008). Gender differences in charitable giving in Great Britain. Voluntas, 19, 103124. doi:10.1007/s11266-008-9057-9Google Scholar
Porter, E. (2007). Peacebuilding: Women in international perspective. London: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Pratt, M. W., Skoe, E. E., & Arnold, M. L. (2004). Care reasoning development and family socialization patterns in later adolescence: A longitudinaI analysis. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28(2), 139147.Google Scholar
Preti, A., Vellante, M., & Petretto, D. R. (2017). The psychometric properties of the “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test: An item response theory (IRT) analysis. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 22, 233253. doi:10.1080/13546805.2017.1300091Google Scholar
Rehnman, J., & Herlitz, A. (2006). Higher face recognition ability in girls: Magnified by own-sex and own-ethnicity bias. Memory, 14(3), 289296. doi:10.1080/09658210500233581Google Scholar
Reid, C., Davis, H., Horlin, C., Anderson, M., Baugman, N., & Campbell, C. (2013). The Kids’ Empathic Development Scale (KEDS): A multi-dimensional measure of empathy in primary school-aged children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 31, 231256.Google Scholar
Reniers, R. L. E. P., Corcoran, R., Drake, R., Shryane, N. M., & Völlm, B. A. (2011). The QCAE: A questionnaire of cognitive and affective empathy. Journal of Personality Assessment, 93, 8495. doi:10.1080/00223891.2010.528484Google Scholar
Reynolds, S. J., & Cerani, T. L. (2007). The effects of moral judgment and moral identity on moral behavior: An empirical examination of the moral individual. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 16101624. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.92.6.Google Scholar
Ridinger, G., & McBride, M. (2015). Money affects Theory of Mind differently by gender. PLoS One, 10, e0143973. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0143973Google Scholar
Roeyers, H., Buysse, A., Ponnet, K., & Pichal, B. (2001). Advancing advanced mind-reading tests: Empathic accuracy in adults with a pervasive developmental disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 271278.Google Scholar
Rose, A. J., & Asher, S. R. (1999). Children’s goals and strategies in response to conflicts within a friendship. Developmental Psychology, 35, 6979. doi:10.2307/1130112Google Scholar
Rose, A. J., & Asher, S. R. (2004). Children’s strategies and goals in response to help-giving and help-seeking tasks within a friendship. Child Development, 75(3), 749–763. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00704.xGoogle Scholar
Rose, A. J., & Rudolph, K. D. (2006). A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 98131. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.98Google Scholar
Ross, H. S., Recchia, H. E., & Carpendale, J. L. M. (2005). Making sense of divergent interpretations of conflict and developing an interpretive understanding of mind. Journal of Cognition and Development, 6, 571592.Google Scholar
Roth-Hanania, R., Davidov, M., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2011). Empathy development from 8 to 16 months: Early signs of concern for others. Infant Behavior & Development, 4, 447458. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2011.04.007Google Scholar
Rowe, J. O., Halling, S., Davies, E., Leifer, M., Powers, D., & van Bronkhorst, J. (1989). The psychology of forgiving another. In R. S. Valle & S. Halling (Eds.), Existential-phenomenological perspectives in psychology. Boston, MA: Springer.Google Scholar
Royzman, E., Cassidy, K. W., & Baron, J. (2003). “I know, you know”: Epistemic egocentrism in children and adults. Review of General Psychology, 7, 3865.Google Scholar
Rueckert, L., & Naybar, N. (2008). Gender differences in empathy: The role of the right hemisphere. Brain and Cognition, 6, 162167. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2008.01.002Google Scholar
Rusbult, C. E., Verette, J., Whitney, G. A., Slovik, L. F., & Lipku, I. (1991). Accommodation processes in close relationships: Theory and preliminary empirical evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 5378.Google Scholar
Russell, T. A., Tchanturia, K., Rahman, K. Q., & Schmidt, U. (2007). Sex differences in theory of mind: A male advantage on Happé’s cartoon task. Cognition and Emotion, 21, 15541564. doi:10.1080/02699930601117096Google Scholar
Ryan, M. K., David, B., & Reynolds, K. J. (2004). Who cares? The effect of gender and context on the self and moral reasoning. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 246255.Google Scholar
Sandstrom, M., & Cillessen, A. H. N. (2003). Sociometric status and children's peer experiences: Use of the daily diary method. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 49(4), 427452. doi:10.1353/mpq.2003.0025Google Scholar
Sasson, N. J., Pinkham, A. E., Richard, J., Hughett, P., Gur, R. E., & Gur, R. C. (2010). Controlling for response biases clarifies sex and age differences in facial affect recognition. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 34, 207221. doi:10.1007/s10919-010-0092-zGoogle Scholar
Schmid, P. C., Mast, M. S., Bombari, D., Mast, F. W., & Lobmaier, J. S. (2011). How mood states affect information processing during facial emotion recognition: An eye tracking study. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 70, 223231. doi:10.1024/1421-0185/a000060Google Scholar
Schmithorst, V. J., & Holland, K. (2007). Sex differences in the development of neuro-anatomical functional connectivity underlying intelligence found using Bayesian connectivity analysis. NeuroImage, 35, 406419. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.11.046Google Scholar
Schulte-Rüther, M., Markowitsch, H. J., Shah, N. J., Fink, G. R., & Piefke, M. (2008). Gender differences in brain networks supporting empathy. NeuroImage, 42, 393403. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.04.180Google Scholar
Schumann, K., Zaki, J., & Dweck, C. S. (2014). Addressing the empathy deficit: Beliefs about the malleability of empathy predict effortful responses when empathy is challenging. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107, 475493. doi:10.1037/a0036Google Scholar
Selman, R. L. (1980). The growth of interpersonal understanding. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Senneker, P., & Hendrick, C. (1983). Androgyny and helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 916925.Google Scholar
Shadmi, E. (2000). Between resistance and compliance, feminism, and nationalism: Women in Black in Israel. Women’s Studies International Forum, 2, 23–34. PII S0277–5395(99)00087-4Google Scholar
Shamay-Tsoory, S. G. (2011). The neural basis for empathy. Neuroscientist, 17, 1824. doi:10.1177/1073858410379268Google Scholar
Sharoni, S. (1996). Gender and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict: The politics of women’s resistance. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.Google Scholar
Sheldon, A. (1990). Pickle fights: Gendered talk in preschool disputes. Discourse Processes, 13, 531.Google Scholar
Sherman, G. D., Lerner, J. S., Renshon, J., Ma-Kellams, C., & Joel, S. (2015). Perceiving others’ feelings: The importance of personality and social structure. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6, 559569.Google Scholar
Sherman, L. W., Strang, H., Angel, C., Woods, D., Barnes, G. C., Bennett, S., & Inkpen, N. (2005). Effects of face-to-face restorative justice on victims of crime in four randomized, controlled trials. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 1, 367395.Google Scholar
Shnabel, N., Halabi, S., & Noor, M. (2013). Overcoming competitive victimhood and facilitating forgiveness through re-categorization into a common victim or perpetrator identityJournal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49867877.Google Scholar
Shnabel, N., & Nadler, A. (2008). A needs-based model of reconciliation: Satisfying the differential emotional needs of victim and perpetrator as a key to promoting reconciliation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 116132. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.1.116.Google Scholar
Sierksma, J., Thijs, J., & Verkuyten, M. (2014). Children’s intergroup helping: The role of empathy and peer group norms. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 126, 369383. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2014.06.002Google Scholar
Singer, T. (2006). The neuronal basis and ontogeny of empathy and mind reading: Review of literature and implications for future research. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 30, 855863, doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.06.011Google Scholar
Singer, T., & Lamm, C. (2009). The social neuroscience of empathy. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1156, 8196.Google Scholar
Singer, T., Seymour, B., O’Doherty, J. P., Stephan, K. E., Dolan, R. J., & Frith, C. D. (2006). Empathic neural responses are modulated by the perceived fairness of others. Nature, 439(7075), 466469. doi:10.1038/nature04271Google Scholar
Skoe, E. E. A. (2010). The relationship between empathy-related constructs and care-based moral development in young adulthood. Journal of Moral Education, 39(2), 191211. doi:10.1080/03057241003754930Google Scholar
Skoe, E. E. A. (2014). Measuring care-based moral development: The Ethic of Care Interview. Behavioral Development Bulletin, 19(3), 95104. doi:10.1037/h0100594Google Scholar
Smith, R. L., & Rose, A. J. (2011). The “cost of caring” in youths’ friendships: Considering associations among social perspective taking, co-rumination, and empathetic distress. Developmental Psychology, 47, 17921803. doi:10.1037/a002S803.Google Scholar
Sonnby-Borgström, M., Jönsson, P., & Svensson, O. (2008). Gender differences in facial imitation and verbally reported emotional contagion from spontaneous to emotionally regulated processing levels. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 49, 111122. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2008.00626.xGoogle Scholar
Sørenson, B. R. Women and post-conflict reconstrucions: Issues and sources. Geneva: Diane Publishing.Google Scholar
Storch, E. A., Brassard, M. R., & Masia-Warner, C. L. (2003). The relationship of peer victimization to social anxiety and loneliness in adolescence. Child Study Journal, 33(1), 118.Google Scholar
Strang, H., Sherman, L., Angel, C. M., Woods, D. J., Bennett, S., Newbury-Birch, D., & Inkpen, N. (2006). Victim evaluations of face-to-face restorative justice conferences: A quasi-experimental analysis. Journal of Social Issues, 62, 281306.Google Scholar
Svirsky, G. (2000). The impact of Women in Black in Israel. In Waller, M. R. & Rycenga, J. (Eds.), Frontline feminisms: Women, war, and resistance (pp. 235245). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Swickert, R., Robertson, S., & Baird, D. (2016). Age moderates the mediational role of empathy in the association between gender and forgiveness. Current Psychology, 35, 354360. doi:10.1007/s12144-014-9300-zGoogle Scholar
Tahmasebi-Birgani, V. (2010). Green Women of Iran: The role of the women’s movement during and after Iran’s presidential election of 2009. Constellations, 17, 7886. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8675.2009.00576.xGoogle Scholar
Tajfel, H. (1982). Social psychology of intergroup relations. Annual Review of Psychology, 33, 139. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.33.020182.000245Google Scholar
Tam, T., Hewstone, M., Cairns, E., Tausch, N., Maio, G., & Kenworthy, J. (2007). The impact of intergroup emotions on forgiveness in Northern Ireland. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 10, 119136. doi:10.1177/1368430207071345Google Scholar
Tarampi, M. R., Heydari, N., & Hegarty, M. (2016). A tale of two types of perspective taking: Sex differences in spatial ability. Psychological Science, 27, 15071516. doi:10.1177/0956797616667459Google Scholar
Tello, F. P. H., Delgado Egido, B., Carrasco Ortiz, M. A., & del Barrio Gándara, M. V. (2013). Interpersonal Reactivity Index: Analysis of invariance and gender differences in Spanish youths. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 44, 320333. doi:10.1007/s10578-012-0327-9Google Scholar
Thomas, G., & Maio, G. R. (2008). Man, I feel like a woman: When and how gender-role motivation helps mind-reading. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 11651179. doi:10.1037/a001Google Scholar
Tomova, L., von Dawans, B., Heinrichs, M., Silani, G., & Lamm, C. (2014). Is stress affecting our ability to tune into others? Evidence for gender differences in the effects of stress on self–other distinction. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 43, 95104.Google Scholar
Tonin, M., & Vlassopoulos, M. (2010). Disentangling the sources of pro-socially motivated effort: A field experiment. Journal of Public Economics, 94, 10861092. doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2010.08.011Google Scholar
Topcu, C., & Erdur-Baker, O. (2012). Affective and cognitive empathy as mediators of gender differences in cyber and traditional bullying. School Psychology International, 33, 550561. doi:10.1177/0143034312446882Google Scholar
Tutu, D. (1999). No future without forgiveness. New York: Doubleday.Google Scholar
Unger, L. S., & Thumuluri, L. K. (1997). Trait empathy and continuous helping: The case of voluntarism. Social Behavior and Personality, 12, 785800.Google Scholar
Updegraff, K. A., Helms, H. M., McHale, S. M., Crouter, A. C., Thayer, S. M., & Sales, L. H. (2004). Who’s the boss? Patterns of perceived control in adolescents’ friendships. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 403420.Google Scholar
Van der Graaff, J., Branje, S., de Wied, M., Hawk, S., Van Lier, P., & Meeus, W. (2014). Perspective taking and empathic concern in adolescence: Gender differences in developmental changes. Developmental Psychology, 50, 881888. doi:10.1037/a0034325Google Scholar
Van der Graaff, J., Carlo, G., Crocetti, E., Koot, H. M., & Branje, S. (2018). Prosocial behavior in adolescence: Gender differences in development and links with empathy. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47, 10861099. doi:10.1007/s10964-017-0786-1Google Scholar
van der Meulen, A., Roerig, S., de Ruyter, D., Van Lier, P., & Krabbendam, L. (2017). A comparison of children’s ability to read children’s and adults’ mental states in an adaptation of the Reading the Mind in the Eyes task. Frontiers in Psychology, 26, #554. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00594Google Scholar
van der Meulen, M., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Crone, E. A. (2016). Neural correlates of prosocial behavior: Compensating social exclusion in a four player Cyberball game. PLoS ONE, 11(7), e015904.Google Scholar
Vikan, A., Camino, C., & Biaggio, A. (2005). Note on a cross-cultural test of Gilligan’s ethic of care. Journal of Moral Education, 34, 107111. doi:10.1080/03057240500051105Google Scholar
von Horn, A., Bäckman, L., Davidsson, T., & Hansen, S. (2010). Empathizing, systemizing and finger length ratio in a Swedish sample. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 51, 3137. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2009.00725.xGoogle Scholar
Vossen, H. G. M., Piotrowski, J. T., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2015). Development of the Adolescent Measure of Empathy and Sympathy (AMES). Personality and Individual Differences, 74, 6671. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.09.040Google Scholar
Walker, L. J. (1984). Sex differences in the development of moral reasoning: A critical review. Child Development, 55, 677691.Google Scholar
Walker, S. (2005). Gender differences in the relationship between young children’s peer-related social competence and individual differences in theory of mind. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 166, 297312.Google Scholar
Wark, G. R., & Krebs, D. L. (1997). Sources of variation in moral judgment: Toward a model of real-life morality. Journal of Adult Development, 4(3), 163178.Google Scholar
Westlund, K., Horowitz, L., Jansson, L., & Ljungberg, T. (2008). Age effects and gender differences on post-conflict reconciliation in preschool children. Behaviour, 145, 15251556.Google Scholar
Williams, A., O’Driscoll, K., & Moore, C. (2014). The influence of empathic concern on prosocial behavior in children. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 425468. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00425Google Scholar
Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children’s understanding of deception. Cognition, 13, 103128.Google Scholar
Winterich, K. P., Mittal, V., & Ross, W. T. Jr. (2009). Donation behavior toward ingroups and outgroups: The role of gender and moral identity. Journal of Consumer Research, 36, 199214. doi:10.1086/596720Google Scholar
Wohl, M. J. A., & Branscombe, N. R. (2005). Forgiveness and collective guilt assignment to historical perpetrator groups depend on level of social category inclusiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(2), 288303. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.2.288Google Scholar
Worthington, E. L. (1998). An empathy-humility-commitment model of forgiveness applied within family dyads. Journal of Family Therapy, 20(1), 5976. doi:10.1111/1467-6427.00068Google Scholar
Yao, S., Zhao, W., Geng, Y., Chen, Y., Zhao, Z., Ma, X., … Kendrick, K. M. (2018). Oxytocin facilitates approach behavior to positive social stimuli via decreasing anterior insula activity. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 21(10), 918925. doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyy068Google Scholar
Yao, S.-Y., Bull, R., Khng, K. H., & Rahim, A. (2017). Psychometric properties of the NEPSY-II affect recognition subtest in a preschool sample: A Rasch modeling approach. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 32, 6380. doi:10.1080/13854046.2017.1343865Google Scholar
Yonker, J. E., Eriksson, E., Nilsson, L.-G., & Herlitz, A. (2003). Sex differences in episodic memory: Minimal influence of estradiol. Brain and Cognition, 52, 231238. doi:10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00074-5Google Scholar
Yuval-Davis, N. (1993). Gender and nation. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 16, 621632. doi:10.1080/01419870.1993.9993800Google Scholar
Yzerbyt, V. Y., Castano, E., Leyens, J.-P., & Paladino, M. P. (2000). The primacy of the ingroup: The interplay of identification, entitativity and overexclusion. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology (Vol. 11, pp. 257295). Chichester: Wiley.Google Scholar
Zaki, J., & Ochsner, K. N. (2012). The neuroscience of empathy: Progress, pitfalls and promise. Nature Neurosience, 15, 675680. doi:10.1038/nn.3085Google Scholar
Zebel, S., Doosje, B., & Spears, R. (2009). How perspective-taking helps and hinders group-based guilt as a function of group identification. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 12(1), 6178. doi:10.1177/1368430208098777Google Scholar

Suggested Readings

Sharon Ng is Associate Professor of Marketing at Nanyang Business School, Singapore. She is currently the Head of Division for Marketing and International Business. Ng received her PhD from the University of Minnesota. She has published in the top marketing journals, such as Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Consumer Research, and Journal of Consumer Psychology. She was named a MSI Young Scholar by the Marketing Science Institute (USA) in 2009, which selects 30 scholars globally whose work suggests they are potential leaders of the next generation of marketing academics. Ng is the Area Editor of the International Journal of Research in Marketing and sits on the editorial board of Journal of Business Research and Australasian Marketing Journal. She is also the co-editor of the Handbook of culture and consumer behavior published by Oxford University Press in 2015. Growing up in Singapore, she has been always been fascinated by how culture influences people’s behavior. Singapore’s multiculturalism provided an early introduction to the importance of being sensitive to cultural differences and this also shapes her research interest.

Mehak Bharti is a PhD student in Marketing at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Prior to this, she did her MBA and spent four years working in the areas of digital strategy and research. Her research interests lie in understanding online consumer behavior, consumer mindsets, cultural background, and gender. Though originally from India, her experiences of living in different countries like India, France, and Singapore have shaped her understanding of the influence of culture in various aspects of our everyday life and behavior.

Natalie Truong Faust is an Assistant Professor of Marketing at NOVA School of Business and Economics, Portugal. She received her PhD in Marketing from the Norwegian School of Economics and was a postdoctoral research fellow at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Her work focuses on consumer behavior, in which her main topics of investigation include beauty/aesthetics, gender, and implicit theories. Originally from Vietnam, Natalie’s experience of living in different cultures has provided much insight into how cultural factors contribute to shaping gendered meaning across various consumption contexts.

Durante, K. M., Griskevicius, V., Hill, S. E., Perilloux, C., & Li, N. P. (2010). Ovulation, female competition, and product choice: Hormonal influences on consumer behaviorJournal of Consumer Research37(6), 921934. doi:10.1086/656575Google Scholar
Fischer, E., & Arnold, S. J. (1990). More than a labor of love: Gender roles and Christmas gift shoppingJournal of Consumer Research17(3), 333345. doi:10.1086/208561Google Scholar
Fisher, R. J., & Dubé, L. (2005). Gender differences in responses to emotional advertising: A social desirability perspective. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(4), 850858. doi:10.1086/426621Google Scholar
Grau, S. L., & Zotos, Y. C. (2016). Gender stereotypes in advertising: A review of current research. International Journal of Advertising, 35(5), 761770. doi:10.1080/02650487.2016.1203556Google Scholar
Grohmann, B. (2009). Gender dimensions of brand personality. Journal of Marketing Research, 46(1), 105119. doi:10.1509/jmkr.46.1.105Google Scholar
Meyers-Levy, J., & Loken, B. (2015). Revisiting gender differences: What we know and what lies aheadJournal of Consumer Psychology25(1), 129149. doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2014.06.003Google Scholar
Putervu, S., Gentry, J. W., & Fischer, E. (2001). Exploring the origins and information processing differences between men and women: Implications for advertisers. Academy of Marketing Science Review, 2001(10). www.amsreview.org/articles/putervu10-2001.pdfGoogle Scholar
Winterich, K. P., Mittal, V., & Ross, W. T. Jr. (2009). Donation behavior toward in-groups and out-groups: The role of gender and moral identity. Journal of Consumer Research36(2), 199214. doi:10.1086/596720Google Scholar

References

Aaker, J. L. (1997). Dimensions of brand personality. Journal of Marketing Research, 34(3), 347356. doi:10.1177/002224379703400304Google Scholar
Abrams, D., Sparkes, K., & Hogg, M. A. (1985). Gender salience and social identity: The impact of sex of siblings on educational and occupational aspirations. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 55(3), 224232. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1985.tb02627.xGoogle Scholar
Åkestam, N., Rosengren, S., & Dahlen, M. (2017). Advertising “like a girl”: Toward a better understanding of “femvertising” and its effects. Psychology & Marketing, 34(8), 795806. doi:10.1002/mar.21023Google Scholar
Arrindell, W. A., Steptoe, A., & Wardle, J. (2003). Higher levels of state depression in masculine than in feminine nationsBehaviour Research and Therapy41(7), 809817. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(02)00185-7Google Scholar
Bahadur, N. (2014). Dove “Real Beauty” campaign turns 10: How a brand tried to change the conversation about female beauty. www.huffpost.com/entry/dove-real-beauty-campaign-turns-10_n_4575940Google Scholar
Baldassare, M., & Katz, C. (1992). The personal threat of environmental problems as predictor of environmental practicesEnvironment and Behavior24(5), 602616. doi:10.1177/0013916592245002Google Scholar
Barone, M. J., & Roy, T. (2010). Does exclusivity always pay off? Exclusive price promotions and consumer response. Journal of Marketing, 74(2), 121132. doi:10.1509/jm.74.2.121Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., & Twenge, J. M. (2002). Cultural suppression of female sexuality. Review of General Psychology, 6 (2), 166203. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.166Google Scholar
Baxter, S. M., Kulczynski, A., & Ilicic, J. (2016). Ads aimed at dads: Exploring consumers’ reactions towards advertising that conforms and challenges traditional gender role ideologies. International Journal of Advertising, 35(6), 970982. doi:10.1080/02650487.2015.1077605Google Scholar
Bay-cheng, L.Y., & Zucker, A. N. (2007). Feminism between the sheets: Sexual attitudes among feminists, nonfeminists, and egalitarians. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31(2), 157163. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00349.xGoogle Scholar
Belk, R. W. (1975). Situational variables and consumer behaviorJournal of Consumer Research2(3), 157164. doi:10.1086/208627Google Scholar
Belk, R. W., & Coon, G. S. (1993). Gift giving as agapic love: An alternative to the exchange paradigm based on dating experiencesJournal of Consumer Research20(3), 393417. doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2011.10.001Google Scholar
Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgynyJournal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42(2), 155162. doi:10.1037/h0036215Google Scholar
Berney-Reddish, I. A., & Areni, C. S. (2006). Sex differences in responses to probability markers in advertising claims. Journal of Advertising, 35(2), 716. doi:10.1080/00913367.2006.10639228Google Scholar
Bloch, P. H., & Richins, M. L. (1992). You look “mahvelous”: The pursuit of beauty and the marketing conceptPsychology & Marketing9(1), 315. doi:10.1002/mar.4220090103Google Scholar
Borgerson, J. L., Schroeder, J. E., Blomberg, B., & Thorssén, E. (2006). The gay family in the ad: Consumer responses to non-traditional families in marketing communications. Journal of Marketing Management, 22(9–10), 955978. doi:10.1362/026725706778935646Google Scholar
Bristor, J. M., & Fischer, E. (1993). Feminist thought: Implications for consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 19(4), 518536. doi:10.1086/209320Google Scholar
Brunel, F. F., & Nelson, M. R. (2000). Explaining gendered responses to “help-self” and “help-others” charity ad appeals: The mediating role of world-viewsJournal of Advertising29(3), 1528. doi:10.1080/00913367.2000.10673614Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. (1994). The evolution of desire: Strategies of human matingNew York: Basic BooksGoogle Scholar
Buss, D. M. (1998). Sexual strategies theory: Historical origins and current status. Journal of Sex Research, 35(1), 1931. doi:10.1080/00224499809551914Google Scholar
Caplan, P. J., Crawford, M., Hyde, J. S., & Richardson, J. T. E. (1997). Gender differences in human cognition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Chang, C. (2006). Cultural masculinity/femininity influences on advertising appeals. Journal of Advertising Research, 46(3), 315323. doi:10.2501/S0021849906060296Google Scholar
Choi, H., Yoo, K., Reichert, T., & LaTour, M. S. (2016). Do feminists still respond negatively to female nudity in advertising? Investigating the influence of feminist attitudes on reactions to sexual appeals. International Journal of Advertising, 35(5), 823845. doi:10.1080/02650487.2016.1151851Google Scholar
Chu, K., Lee, D., & Kim, J. Y. (2016). The effect of non-stereotypical gender role advertising on consumer evaluation. International Journal of Advertising, 35(1), 106134. doi:10.1080/02650487.2015.1110942Google Scholar
Clarke, K., & Belk, R. W. (1979). The effects of product involvement and task definition on anticipated consumer effort. In Wilkie, W. L. (Eds.), Advances in consumer research (Vol. 6, pp. 313318). Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research. http://acrwebsite.org/volumes/9220/volumes/v06/NA-06Google Scholar
Cleveland, M., Babin, B. J., Laroche, M., Ward, P., & Bergeron, J. (2003). Information search patterns for gift purchases: A cross‐national examination of gender differencesJournal of Consumer Behaviour: An International Research Review3(1), 2047. doi:10.1002/cb.120Google Scholar
Costa, P. T. Jr., Terracciano, A., & McCrae, R. R. (2001). Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: Robust and surprising findingsJournal of Personality and Social Psychology81(2), 322331. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.2.322Google Scholar
Cross, S. E., & Markus, H. R. (1993). The psychology of gender. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Dahl, D. W., Sengupta, J., & Vohs, K. D. (2009). Sex in advertising: Gender differences and the role of relationship commitment. Journal of Consumer Research, 36(2), 215231. doi:10.1086/597158Google Scholar
Davis, K. (2013). Reshaping the female body: The dilemma of cosmetic surgery. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
De Meulenaer, S., Dens, N., De Pelsmacker, P., & Eisend, M. (2018). How consumers’ values influence responses to male and female gender role stereotyping in advertising. International Journal of Advertising, 37(6), 893913. doi:10.1080/02650487.2017.1354657Google Scholar
Diekman, A. B, & Eagly, A. H. (2000). Stereotypes as dynamic constructs: Women and men of the past, present, and future. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(19), 11711188. doi:10.1177/0146167200262001Google Scholar
Donnelly, K., & Twenge, J. M. (2017). Masculine and feminine traits on the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, 1993–2012: A cross-temporal meta-analysis. Sex Roles, 76(9–10), 556565. doi:10.1007/s11199-016-0625-yGoogle Scholar
Durante, K. M., Griskevicius, V., Hill, S. E., Perilloux, C., & Li, N. P. (2010). Ovulation, female competition, and product choice: Hormonal influences on consumer behaviorJournal of Consumer Research37(6), 921934. doi:10.1086/656575Google Scholar
Dweck, C. S., Chiu, C., & Hong, Y. (1995). Implicit theories and their role in judgments and reactions: A word from two perspectives. Psychological Inquiry, 6(4), 267285. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0604_1Google Scholar
Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (2013). The nature–nurture debates: 25 years of challenges in understanding the psychology of gender. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(3), 340357. doi:10.1177/1745691613484767Google Scholar
Eagly, A. H., Wood, W., & Diekman, A. B. (2000). Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: A current appraisal. In Eckes, T. & Trautner, H. M. (Eds.), The developmental social psychology of gender (pp. 123176). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Eisend, M. (2010). A meta-analysis of gender roles in advertising. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 38(4), 418440. doi:10.1007/s11747-009-0181-xGoogle Scholar
Eisend, M., Plagemann, J., & Sollwedel, J. (2014). Gender roles and humor in advertising: The occurrence of stereotyping in humorous and nonhumorous advertising and its consequences for advertising effectiveness. Journal of Advertising, 43(3), 256273. doi:10.1080/00913367.2013.857621Google Scholar
Feiereisen, S., Broderick, A. J., & Douglas, S. P. (2009). The effect and moderation of gender identity congruity: Utilizing “real women” advertising images. Psychology & Marketing, 26(9), 813843. doi:10.1002/mar.20301Google Scholar
Fischer, E., & Arnold, S. J. (1990). More than a labor of love: Gender roles and Christmas gift shoppingJournal of Consumer Research17(3), 333345. doi:10.1086/208561Google Scholar
Fischer, E., & Arnold, S. J. (1994). Sex, gender identity, gender role attitudes, and consumer behavior. Psychology & Marketing 11(2), 163182. doi:10.1002/mar.4220110206Google Scholar
Fisher, R. J., & Dubé, L. (2005). Gender differences in responses to emotional advertising: A social desirability perspective. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(4), 850858. doi:10.1086/426621Google Scholar
Fournier, S. (1998). Consumers and their brands: Developing relationship theory in consumer researchJournal of Consumer Research24(4), 343373. doi:10.1086/209515Google Scholar
Freeman, J. B. & Ambady, N. (2010). MouseTracker: Software for studying real-time mental processing using a computer mouse-tracking method. Behavior Research Methods, 42(1), 226241. doi:10.3758/BRM.42.1.226Google Scholar
Fry, J. N. (1971). Personality variables and cigarette brand choice. Journal of Marketing Research, 8(3), 298304. doi:10.1177/002224377100800303Google Scholar
GillR., & Arthurs, J. (2006). Editors’ introduction: New femininities? Feminist Media Studies6(4), 443451. doi:10.1080/14680770600989855Google Scholar
Gill, R., Henwood, K., & McLean, C. (2005). Body projects and the regulation of normative masculinityBody & Society11(1), 3762. doi:10.1177/1357034X05049849Google Scholar
Gill, S., Stockard, J., Johnson, M., & Williams, S. (1987). Measuring gender differences: The expressive dimension and critique of androgyny scales. Sex Roles, 17(7–8), 375400. doi:10.1007/BF00288142Google Scholar
Grau, S. L., & Zotos, Y. C. (2016). Gender stereotypes in advertising: A review of current research. International Journal of Advertising, 35(5), 761770. doi:10.1080/02650487.2016.1203556Google Scholar
Greenward, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 14641480. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464Google Scholar
Grohmann, B. (2009). Gender dimensions of brand personality. Journal of Marketing Research, 46(1), 105119. doi:10.1509/jmkr.46.1.105Google Scholar
Guimond, S., Chatard, A., Martinot, D., Crisp, R. J., & Redersdorff, S. (2006). Social comparison, self-stereotyping, and gender differences in self-construalsJournal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(2), 221242. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.2.221Google Scholar
HallC. C., & Crum., M. J. (1994). Women and “body-isms” in television beer commercials. Sex Roles31(5–6), 329337. doi:10.1007/BF01544592Google Scholar
He, X., Inman, J. J., & Mittal, V. (2008). Gender jeopardy in financial risk taking. Journal of Marketing Research, 45(4), 414424. doi:10.1509/jmkr.45.4.414Google Scholar
Hill, S. E., Rodeheffer, C. D., Griskevicius, V., Durante, K., & White, A. E. (2012). Boosting beauty in an economic decline: Mating, spending, and the lipstick effectJournal of Personality and Social Psychology103(2), 275291. doi:10.1037/a0028657Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture and organizationsInternational Studies of Management & Organization10(4), 1541. doi:10.1080/00208825.1980.11656300Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. (1998). Masculinity and femininity: The taboo dimension of national cultures. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Holbrook, M. (1986). Aims, concepts, and methods for the representation of individual differences in esthetics responses to design features. Journal of Consumer Research, 13(3), 337347. doi:10.1086/209073Google Scholar
HoltD., & Cameron, D. (2010). Cultural strategy: Using innovative ideologies to build breakthrough brandsOxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Johar, G. V., Moreau, P., & Schwarz, N. (2003). Gender typed advertisements and impression formation: The role of chronic and temporary accessibility. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 13(3), 220229. doi:10.1207/S15327663JCP1303_04Google Scholar
Johnson, R. D. (1990). Examination of the construct validity of the Expectations About Counseling questionnaire – Brief form for rural counseling applicants. Doctoral dissertation, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 1989.Google Scholar
Johnson, T., Kulesa, P., Cho, Y. I., & Shavitt, S. (2005). The relation between culture and response styles: Evidence from 19 countriesJournal of Cross-Cultural Psychology36(2), 264277. doi:10.1177/0022022104272905Google Scholar
Kahle, L. R., & Homer, P. (1985). Androgyny and midday mastication: Do real men eat quiche? In Hirschman, E. C. & Holbrook, M. B. (Eds.), Advances in consumer research (Vol.12, pp. 242246). Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research. http://acrwebsite.org/volumes/6392/volumes/v12/NA-12Google Scholar
Keller, E. F. (1983). Feminism and science. In Abel, E. & Abel, E. (Eds.), The signs reader: Women, gender and scholarship (pp. 109122). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Kemp, E., Kennett-Hensel, P. A., & Kees, J. (2013). Pulling on the heartstrings: Examining the effects of emotions and gender in persuasive appealsJournal of Advertising42(1), 6979. doi:10.1080/00913367.2012.749084Google Scholar
Klink, R. R. (2000). Creating brand names with meaning: The use of sound symbolism. Marketing Letters, 11(1), 520. doi:10.1023/A:1008184423824Google Scholar
Klink, R. R. (2009). Gender differences in new brand name response. Marketing Letters, 20(3), 313326. doi:10.1007/s11002-008-9066-x.Google Scholar
Kray, L. J., Howland, L., Russell, A. G., & Jackman, L. M. (2017). The effects of implicit gender role theories on gender system justification: Fixed beliefs strengthen masculinity to preserve the status quoJournal of Personality and Social Psychology, 112(1), 98115. doi:10.1037/pspp0000124Google Scholar
Lerner, G. (1986). The creation of patriarchy (Vol. 1). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lieven, T., Grohmann, B., Herrmann, A., Landwehr, J. R., & Tilburg, M. V. (2015). The effect of brand design on brand gender perceptions and brand preference. European Journal of Marketing, 49(1/2), 146169. doi:10.1108/EJM-08-2012-0456Google Scholar
Liffreing, I. (2017). For the first time, Dove brings women from all over the world together in update to “Real Beauty” campaign. www.prweek.com/article/1426264/first-time-dove-brings-women-world-together-update-real-beauty-campaignGoogle Scholar
MacKay, N. J., & Covell, K. (1997). The impact of women in advertisements on attitudes toward womenSex Roles36(9–10), 573583. doi:10.1023/A:1025613923786Google Scholar
Maglaty, J. (2011). When did girls start wearing pink? Smithsonian.com. www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/when-did-girls-start-wearing-pink-1370097/Google Scholar
MansteadA. S. R., & McCulloch, R. (1981). Sex-role stereotyping in British television advertisementsBritish Journal of Social Psychology20(3), 171180. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.1981.tb00529.xGoogle Scholar
Markus, H., & Oyserman, D. (1989). Gender and thought: The role of the self-concept. In Crawford, M. & Gentry, M. (Eds.), Gender and thought: Psychological perspectives (pp. 100127). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Martin, B. A. S, & Gnoth, J. (2009). Is the Marlboro man the only alternative? The role of gender identity and self-construal salience in evaluations of male models. Marketing Letters, 20(4), 353367. doi:10.1007/s11002-009-9069-2Google Scholar
Martin, C. L. (1990). Attitudes and expectations about children with nontraditional and traditional gender roles. Sex Roles, 22(3–4), 151165. doi:10.1007/BF00288188Google Scholar
Meyers-Levy, J. (1988). Influence of sex roles on judgment. Journal of Consumer Research, 14(4), 522530. doi:10.1086/209133Google Scholar
Meyers-Levy, J. (1989). Gender differences in information processing: A selectivity interpretation. In Cafferata, P. & Tybout, A. (Eds.), Cognitive and affective responses to advertising (pp. 219260). Lexington, MA: Lexington.Google Scholar
Meyers-Levy, J., & Loken, B. (2015). Revisiting gender differences: What we know and what lies aheadJournal of Consumer Psychology25(1), 129149. doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2014.06.003Google Scholar
Meyers-Levy, J., & Maheswaran, D. (1991). Exploring differences in males’ and females’ processing strategy. Journal of Consumer Research, 18(1), 6370. doi:10.1086/209241Google Scholar
Meyers-Levy, J., & Sternthal, B. (1991). Gender differences in the use of message cues and judgments. Journal of Marketing Research, 28(1), 8496. doi:10.1177/002224379102800107Google Scholar
Meyers-Levy, J., & Zhu, R. (2010). Gender differences in the meanings consumers infer from music and other aesthetic stimuli. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 20(4), 495507. doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2010.06.006Google Scholar
Milner, L. M., & Collins, J. M. (2000). Sex-role portrayals and the gender of nations. Journal of Advertising, 29(1), 6779. doi:10.1080/00913367.2000.10673604Google Scholar
Mitchell, V. W., & Walsh, G. (2004). Gender differences in German consumer decision‐making stylesJournal of Consumer Behaviour: An International Research Review3(4), 331346. doi:10.1002/cb.146Google Scholar
Morrison, M. M., & Shaffer, D. R. (2003). Gender-role congruence and self-referencing as determinants of advertising effectiveness. Sex Roles, 49(5–6), 265275. doi:10.1023/A:1024604424224Google Scholar
Morton, E. S. (1994). Sound symbolism and its role in non-human vertebrate communication. In Hinton, L., Nicholls, J., & Ohala, J. J. (Eds.), Sound symbolism (pp. 348365). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
NosekB. A., SmythF. L., SriramN., LindnerN. M.Devos, T.AyalaA., … Greenwald, A. G. (2009). National differences in gender–science stereotypes predict national sex differences in science and math achievement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America106(26), 10,59310,597. doi:10.1073/pnas.0809921106Google Scholar
Noseworthy, T. J., Cotte, J., & Lee, S. H. (2011). The effects of ad context and gender on the identification of visually incongruent products. Journal of Consumer Research, 38(2), 358375. doi:10.1086/658472Google Scholar
Oakenfull, G. (2012). Gay consumers and brand usage: The gender-flexing role of gay identity. Psychology & Marketing, 29(12), 968979. doi:10.1002/mar.20578Google Scholar
O’Donnell, K. (1999). Good girls gone bad: The consumption of fetish fashion and the sexual empowerment of women.  In Arnould, E. J. & Scott, L. M. (Eds.), Advances in consumer research (Vol. 26, pp. 184189). Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research. http://acrwebsite.org/volumes/8245/volumes/v26/NA-26Google Scholar
Ohala, J. J. (1994). The frequency code underlies the sound symbolic use of voice pitch. In Hinton, L., Nichols, J., & Ohala, J. J. (Eds.), Sound symbolism (pp. 325347). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Orth, U. R., & Holancova, D. (2004). Men’s and women’s responses to sex role portrayals in advertisements. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 21(1), 7788. doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2003.05.003Google Scholar
Oyserman, D. (1993). The lens of personhood: Viewing the self and others in a multicultural societyJournal of Personality and Social Psychology65(5), 9931009. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.65.5.993Google Scholar
PaechterC. (2006). Femininities and schooling. In Skelton, C., Francis, B., & Smulyan, L. (Eds.), The Sage handbook of gender and education (pp. 365377). New YorkSage.Google Scholar
Palan, K. M. (2001). Gender identity in consumer behavior research: A literature review and research agenda. Academy of Marketing Science Review, 2001(10), 124. www.amsreview.org/articles/palan10-2001.pdfGoogle Scholar
Park, S. Y. (1998). A comparison of Korean and American gift‐giving behaviorsPsychology & Marketing15(6), 577593. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6793(199809)15:6<577::AID-MAR6>3.0.CO;2-3Google Scholar
Peña, M., Mehler, J., & Nespor, M. (2011). The role of audiovisual processing in early conceptual developmentPsychological Science, 22(11), 14191421. doi:10.1177/0956797611421791Google Scholar
Phillip, M. V., & Suri, R. (2004). Impact of gender differences on the evaluation of promotional emails. Journal of Advertising Research, 44(4), 360368. doi:10.1017/S0021849904040383Google Scholar
PollayR. W. (1986). The distorted mirror: Reflections on the unintended consequences of advertisingJournal of Marketing50(2), 1836. doi:10.1177/002224298605000202Google Scholar
Putervu, S. (2004). Communicating with the sexes: Male and female responses to print advertisements. Journal of Advertising, 33(3), 5162. doi:10.1080/00913367.2004.10639168Google Scholar
Putervu, S., Gentry, J. W., & Fischer, E. (2001). Exploring the origins and information processing differences between men and women: Implications for advertisers. Academy of Marketing Science Review, 2001(10). www.amsreview.org/articles/putervu10-2001.pdfGoogle Scholar
Qian, W., Abdur Razzaque, M., & Ah Keng, K. (2007). Chinese cultural values and gift-giving behaviorJournal of Consumer Marketing24(4), 214228. doi:10.1108/07363760710756002Google Scholar
Reichert, T., & Carpenter, C. (2004). An update on sex in magazine advertising: 1983 to 2003. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 81(4), 823837. doi:10.1177/107769900408100407Google Scholar
Richard, M. O., Chebat, J. C., Yang, Z., & Putervu, S. (2010). A proposed model of online consumer behavior: Assessing the role of gender. Journal of Business Research, 63(9), 926934. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2009.02.027Google Scholar
Ritterfeld, L. J. (2017). Gendered products. raffia-magazine.com/2017/12/01/gendered-products/Google Scholar
Röder, S., Brewer, G., & Fink, B. (2009). Menstrual cycle shifts in women’s self-perception and motivation: A daily report methodPersonality and Individual Differences47(6), 616619. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.05.019Google Scholar
RohlingerD. A. (2002). Eroticizing men: Cultural influences on advertising and male objectificationSex Roles, 46(3–4), 6174. doi:10.1023/A:1016575909173Google Scholar
Rook, D. W., & Hoch, S. J. (1985). Consuming impulses. In Hirschman, E. C. & Holbrook, M. B. (Eds.), Advances in consumer research (Vol. 12, pp. 2327). Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research. http://acrwebsite.org/volumes/6351/volumes/v12/NA-12Google Scholar
RossiS. R., & Rossi, J. S. (1985). Gender differences in the perception of women in magazine advertisingSex Roles, 12(9–10), 10331039. doi:10.1007/BF0028810Google Scholar
Rudman, L. A., & Kilianski, S. E. (2000). Implicit and explicit attitudes toward female authority. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(11), 13151328. doi:10.1177/0146167200263001Google Scholar
Rydell, R. J., Hugenberg, K., Ray, D., & Mackie, D. M. (2007). Implicit theories about groups and stereotyping: The role of group entitativity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(4), 549558. doi:10.1177/0146167206296956Google Scholar
Saad, G., & Stenstrom, E. (2012). Calories, beauty, and ovulation: The effects of the menstrual cycle on food and appearance-related consumptionJournal of Consumer Psychology22(1), 102113. doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2011.10.001Google Scholar
SchroederJ. E., & Borgerson, J. (2003). Dark desires: Fetishism, ontology and representation in contemporary advertising. In Reichert, T. & Lambiase, J. (Eds.), Sex in advertising: Perspectives on the erotic appeal (pp. 6589). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Schwartz, P., & Rutter, V. E. (1998). The gender of sexuality. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.Google Scholar
Seidlitz, L., & Diener, E. (1998). Sex differences in the recall of affective experiencesJournal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 262271. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.262Google Scholar
Shrum, L. J., Lowrey, T. M., Luna, D., Lerman, D. B., & Liu, M. (2012). Sound symbolism effects across languages: Implications for global brand names. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 29(3), 275279. doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2012.03.002Google Scholar
Silverman, I., Phillips, K., & Silverman, L. K. (1996). Homogeneity of effect sizes for sex across spatial tests and cultures: Implications for hormonal theoriesBrain Cognition, 31(1), 9094. doi:10.1006/brcg.1996.0027Google Scholar
Silverstein, M. J., & Sayre, K. (2009). The female economyHarvard Business Review87(9), 4653. hbr.org/2009/09/the-female-economyGoogle Scholar
Sirgy, J. M. (1982). Self-concept in consumer behavior: A critical review. Journal of Consumer Research, 9(3), 287300. doi:10.1086/208924Google Scholar
Sirgy, J. M. (1985). Using self-congruity and ideal congruity to predict purchase motivationJournal of Business Research, 13(3), 195206. doi:10.1016/0148-2963(85)90026-8Google Scholar
Stern, B. B. (1988). Sex‐role self‐concept measures and marketing: A research notePsychology & Marketing5(1), 8599. doi:10.1002/mar.4220050107Google Scholar
Swaminathan, V., Page, K. L., & Gürhan‐Canli, Z. (2007). Added ‘my’ brand or ‘our’ brand: The effects of brand relationship dimensions and self-construal on brand. Journal of Consumer Research, 34(2), 248259. doi:10.1086/518539Google Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. In Campbell, B. (Ed.), Sexual selection and the descent of man, 1871–1971 (pp. 136179). Chicago: Aldine.Google Scholar
Uray, N., & Burnaz, S. (2003). An analysis of the portrayal of gender roles in Turkish television advertisement. Sex Roles, 48(1–2), 7787. doi:10.1023/A:1022348813469Google Scholar
Verhellen, Y., Dens, N., & De Pelsmacker, P. (2016). A longitudinal content analysis of gender role portrayal in Belgian television advertising. Journal of Marketing Communications, 22(2), 170188. doi:10.1080/13527266.2013.871321Google Scholar
Wheeler, S. C., & Omair, A. (2016). Potential growth areas for implicit theories research. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 26(1), 137141. doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2015.06.008Google Scholar
Wiggins, J. S. (1982). Circumplex models of interpersonal behavior in clinical psychology. In Kendall, P. & Butcher, J. (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in clinical psychology (pp. 183221). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Winterich, K. P., Carter, R. E., Barone, M. J., Janakiraman, R., & Bezawada, R. (2015). Tis better to give than receive? How and when gender and residence-based segments predict choice of donation- versus discount-based promotionsJournal of Consumer Psychology25(4), 622634. doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2014.12.006Google Scholar
Winterich, K. P., Mittal, V., & Ross, W. T. Jr. (2009). Donation behavior toward in-groups and out-groups: The role of gender and moral identityJournal of Consumer Research36(2), 199214. doi:10.1086/596720Google Scholar
Wolin, L. D. (2003). Gender issues in advertising – An oversight synthesis of research: 1970–2002. Journal of Advertising Research, 43(1), 111129. doi:10.1017/S0021849903030125Google Scholar
Yau, O. H., Chan, T. S., & Lau, K. F. (1999). Influence of Chinese cultural values on consumer behavior: A proposed model of gift-purchasing behavior in Hong KongJournal of International Consumer Marketing11(1), 97116. doi:10.1300/J046v11n01_07Google Scholar
Yorkston, E., & De Mello, G. E. (2005). Linguistic gender marking and categorizationJournal of Consumer Research, 32(2), 224234. doi:10.1086/432232Google Scholar
Zawisza, M., & Cinnirella, M. (2010). What matters more – breaking tradition or stereotype content? Envious and paternalistic gender stereotypes and advertising effectiveness. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40(7), 17671797. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00639.xGoogle Scholar
Zelezny, L. C., Chua, P. P., & Aldrich, C. (2000). New ways of thinking about environmentalism: Elaborating on gender differences in environmentalismJournal of Social issues56(3), 443457. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00177Google Scholar
ZotosY., & Tsichla, E. (2014). Snapshots of men and women in interaction: An investigation of stereotypes in print advertisement relationship portrayalsJournal of Euromarketing23(3), 3558. http://ktisis.cut.ac.cy/handle/10488/8443Google Scholar

Suggested Readings

Adam Davis is currently enrolled in a PhD program in Education at the University of Ottawa. His principal research interests involve using an evolutionary perspective, particularly sexual selection theory, to study dark personality traits, jealousy, and aggressive behavior among adolescents and young adults. His secondary program of research is focused around studying the links between cognitive styles, environmental values, and pro-environmental behavior. Davis was born in Ontario, Canada where he has lived his entire life. He has spent two weeks in Honduras during graduate school helping graduate students with behavioral ecology research on howler monkeys. He identifies himself as atheist, democratic socialist, and feminist.

Tracy Vaillancourt is a Tier 1 Canada Research Chair in School-Based Mental Health and Violence Prevention at the University of Ottawa where she is cross-appointed as a Full Professor in Counselling Psychology and the School of Psychology. She is also an elected member of the College of the Royal Society of Canada. She received her BA, MA, and PhD from the University of British Columbia (human development), her postdoctoral diploma from the University of Montreal and Laval University (developmental psychology), and postdoctoral respecialization in applied child psychology (clinical) from McGill University. Vaillancourt’s research examines the links between bullying and mental health, with a particular focus on social neuroscience. She is currently funded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research and the Social Sciences and Humanities Council of Canada.

John Archer is an Emeritus Professor at the University of Central Lancashire, Preston. He has been an active researcher in the field of aggressive behavior for more than 40 years, focusing his research on aggression and violence and, in particular, sex differences in aggression, including in relation to sexual selection, partner violence, the relations between testosterone and aggression, and resource holding power and aggression. Archer served as the editor-in-chief of Aggressive Behavior from 2012 to 2018. He was recipient of the John Paul Scott Award from the International Society for Research on Aggression (ISRA) in 2016, and was made a Life Fellow of ISRA in 2018 “in recognition of his distinguished lifetime contribution to research on aggression.” Born in Windsor, UK, he went to University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, for his undergraduate degree and University of Bristol for his PhD.

Archer, J. (2009). Does sexual selection explain human sex differences in aggression? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 32, 249311. doi:10.1017/S0140525X09990951Google Scholar
Arnocky, S., & Vaillancourt, T. (2017). Sexual competition among women: A review of the theory and supporting evidence. In Fisher, M. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of women and competition (pp. 2539). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Campbell, A. (2004). Female competition: Causes, constraints, content, and contexts. Journal of Sex Research, 41, 1626. doi:10.1080/0022449040 9552210Google Scholar
Vaillancourt, T. (2013). Do human females use indirect aggression as an intrasexual competition strategy? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B Biological Sciences, 368(1631). doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0080Google Scholar
Vaillancourt, T., & Krems, J. A. (2018). An evolutionary psychological perspective of indirect aggression in girls and women. In Coyne, S. & Ostrov, J. (Eds.), The development of relational aggression (pp. 111126). Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oso/9780190491826.003.0008Google Scholar

References

Archer, J. (2000). Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 651680. doi:10.1037//0033-2909.126.5.651Google Scholar
Archer, J. (2002). Sex differences in physically aggressive acts between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 7, 313351. doi:10.1016/ S1359–1789(01)00061-1Google Scholar
Archer, J. (2004). Sex differences in aggression in real-world settings: A meta-analytic review. Review of General Psychology, 8, 291322. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.8.4.291Google Scholar
Archer, J. (2006). Cross-cultural differences in physical aggression between partners: A social-role analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, 133153. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1002_3Google Scholar
Archer, J. (2009). Does sexual selection explain human sex differences in aggression? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 32, 249311. doi:10.1017/S0140525X09990951Google Scholar
Archer, J. (2013). Can evolutionary principles explain patterns of family violence? Psychological Bulletin, 138, 403440. doi:10.1037/a0029114Google Scholar
Archer, J. (2018). Violence to partners: Gender symmetry revisited. In Ireland, J. L., Ireland, C. A., & Burch, P. (Eds.), International handbook on aggression (pp. 155169). London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Archer, J. (2019). The reality and evolutionary significance of human psychological sex differences. Biological Reviews, 94, 13811415. doi:10.1111/brv.12507Google Scholar
Archer, J., & Coyne, S. M. (2005). An integrated review of indirect, relational, and social aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9, 212230. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0903_2Google Scholar
Arnocky, S. (2016). Intrasexual rivalry among women. In: Shackelford, T. K. & Weekes-Shackelford, V. A. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of evolutionary psychological science (pp. 18). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_1424-1Google Scholar
Arnocky, S., & Piché, T. (2014). Cosmetic surgery as intrasexual competition: The mediating role of social comparison. Psychology, 5, 11971205. doi:10.4236/psych.2014.510132Google Scholar
Arnocky, S., Ribout, A., Mirza, R. S., & Knack, J. M. (2014). Perceived mate availability influences intrasexual competition, jealousy and mate-guarding behavior. Journal of Evolutionary Psychology, 12, 4564. doi:10.1556/JEP.12.2014.1.3Google Scholar
Arnocky, S., Sunderani, S., Miller, J. L., & Vaillancourt, T. (2012). Jealousy mediates the relationship between attractiveness and females’ indirect aggression. Personal Relationships, 19, 290303. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2011.01362.xGoogle Scholar
Arnocky, S., Sunderani, S., & Vaillancourt, T. (2013). Mate-poaching and mating success in humans. Journal of Evolutionary Psychology, 11, 6583. doi:10.1556/JEP.11.2013.2.2Google Scholar
Arnocky, S., & Vaillancourt, T. (2012). A multi-informant longitudinal study on the relationship between aggression, peer victimization, and dating status in adolescence. Evolutionary Psychology, 10, 253270. doi:10.1177/147470491201000207Google Scholar
Arnocky, S., & Vaillancourt, T. (2017). Sexual competition among women: A review of the theory and supporting evidence. In Fisher, M. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of women and competition (pp. 2539). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Benenson, J. F. (2013). The development of human female competition: Allies and adversaries. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, Biological Sciences, 368(1631). doi:10.1098/rstb. 2013.0079Google Scholar
Benenson, J. F., Markovits, H., Hultgren, B., Nguyen, T., Bullock, G., & Wrangham, R. (2013). Social exclusion: More important to human females than males. PLoS One, 8. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055851Google Scholar
Benzeval, M., Green, M. J., & Macintyre, S. (2013). Does perceived physical attractiveness in adolescence predict better socioeconomic position in adulthood? Evidence from 20 years of follow up in a population cohort study. PLoS One, 8. doi:10.1371/journal.pone. 0063975Google Scholar
Bettencourt, B., & Miller, N. (1996). Gender differences in aggression as a function of provocation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 422447. doi:10.1037/0033- 2909.119.3.422Google Scholar
Bjorklund, D. F., & Shackelford, T. K. (1999). Differences in parental investment contribute to important differences between men and women. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 8, 8689. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00020Google Scholar
Björkqvist, K. (1994). Sex differences in physical, verbal, and indirect aggression: A review of recent research. Sex Roles, 30, 177188. doi:10.1007/BF01420988Google Scholar
Björkqvist, K., Lagerspetz, K. M. J., & Kaukiainen, A. (1992a). Do girls manipulate and boys fight? Developmental trends in regard to direct and indirect aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 18, 117127. doi:10.1002/1098-2337(1992)18:2<117::AID- AB2480180205>3.0.CO;2-3Google Scholar
Björkqvist, K., Osterman, K., & Kaukiainen, A. (1992b). The development of direct and indirect aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 18, 117127. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-1025908.50010-6Google Scholar
Bleske, A. L., & Shackelford, T. K., (2001). Poaching, promiscuity, and deceit: Combatting mating rivalry in same‐sex friendships. Personal Relationships, 8, 407424. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2001.tb00048.xGoogle Scholar
Boyatzis, C. J., Baloff, P., & Durieux, C. (1998). Effects of perceived attractiveness and academic success on early adolescent peer popularity. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 159, 337344. doi:10.1080/00221329809596155Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. (1988). The evolution of human intrasexual competition: Tactics of mate attraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 616628. doi:10.1037/0022- 3514.54.4.616Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. (1989). Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12, 114. doi:10.1017/S0140525 X00023992Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. (1996). Paternity uncertainty and the complex repertoire of human mating strategies. American Psychologist, 51, 161162. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.51.2.161Google Scholar
Buss, D. M., & Dedden, L. A. (1990). Derogation of competitors. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 7, 395422. doi:10.1177/0265407590073006Google Scholar
Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. P. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: An evolutionary perspective on human mating. Psychological Review, 100, 204232. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.100.2.204Google Scholar
Buss, D. M., & Shackelford, T. K. (1997). Human aggression in evolutionary psychological perspective. Clinical Psychology Review, 17, 605619. doi:10.1016/S0272 7358(97)00037-8Google Scholar
Buss, D. M., & Shackelford, T. K. (2008). Attractive women want it all: Good genes, economic investment, parenting proclivities, and emotional commitment. Evolutionary Psychology, 6, 134146. doi:10.1177/147470490800600116Google Scholar
Buss, D. M., Shackelford, T. K., Choe, J., Buunk, B. P., & Dijkstra, P. (2000). Distress about mating rivals. Personal Relationships, 7, 235243. doi:10.1111/j.1475- 6811.2000.tb00014.xGoogle Scholar
Buunk, A. P., & Fisher, M. (2009). Individual differences in intrasexual competition. Journal of Evolutionary Psychology, 7, 3748. doi:10.1556/JEP.7.2009.1.5Google Scholar
Buunk, A. P., Solano, A. C., Zurriaga, R., & González, P. (2011). Gender differences in the jealousy-evoking effect of rival characteristics: A study in Spain and Argentina. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 42, 323339. doi:10.1177/0022022111403664Google Scholar
Buunk, B. P., Dijkstra, P., Kenrick, D. T., & Warntjes, A. (2001). Age preferences for mates as related to gender, own age, and involvement level. Evolution and Human Behavior, 22, 241250. doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(01)00065-4Google Scholar
Campbell, A. (1995). A few good men: Evolutionary psychology and female adolescent aggression. Ethology and Sociobiology, 16, 99123. doi:10.1016/0162- 3095(94)00072-FGoogle Scholar
Campbell, A. (1999). Staying alive: Evolution, culture and intra-female aggression. Behavioral Brain Sciences, 22, 203252. doi:10.1017/S0140525X99001818Google Scholar
Campbell, A. (2004). Female competition: Causes, constraints, content, and contexts. Journal of Sex Research, 41, 1626. doi:10.1080/0022449040 9552210Google Scholar
Campbell, A. (2013). The evolutionary psychology of women’s aggression. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, Biological Sciences, 368(1631). doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0078Google Scholar
Campbell, A., Muncer, S., & Bibel, D. (2001). Women and crime: An evolutionary approach. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 6, 481497. doi:10.1016 /S1359–1789(00)00019-7Google Scholar
Carbone-Lopez, K., Esbensen, F. A., & Brick, B. T. (2010). Correlates and consequences of peer victimization: Gender differences in direct and indirect forms of bullying. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 8, 332350. doi:10.1177/1541204010362954Google Scholar
Card, N. A., Stucky, B. D., Sawalani, G. M., & Little, T. D. (2008). Direct and indirect aggression during childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic review of gender differences, intercorrelations, and relations to maladjustments. Child Development, 5, 11851229. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01184.xGoogle Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H. (1988). Reproductive success. In Clutton-Brock, T. H. (Ed.), Reproductive success: Studies of individual variation in contrasting breeding systems (pp. 472485). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H. (1989). Review lecture: Mammalian mating systems. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, Biological Sciences, 236, 339372. doi:10.1098/rspb.1989.0027Google Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H. (2009). Sexual selection in females. Animal Behaviour, 77, 311. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.08.026Google Scholar
Conroy-Beam, D., Buss, D. M., Pham, M. N., & Shackelford, T. K. (2015). How sexually dimorphic are human mate preferences. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41, 10821093. doi:10.1177/0146167215590987Google Scholar
Côté, S. M., Vaillancourt, T., Barker, E. D., Nagin, D., & Tremblay, R. E. (2007). The joint development of physical and indirect aggression: Predictors of continuity and change during childhoodDevelopment and Psychopathology19, 3755. doi:10.1017/S0954579407070034Google Scholar
Côté, S., Vaillancourt, T., LeBlanc, J. C., Nagin, D. S., & Tremblay, R. E. (2006). The development of physical aggression from toddlerhood to pre-adolescence: A nation wide longitudinal study of Canadian childrenJournal of Abnormal Child Psychology34, 6882. doi:10.1007/s10802-005-9001-zGoogle Scholar
Coyne, S. M., Manning, J. T., Ringer, L., & Bailey, L. (2007). Directional asymmetry (right–left differences) in digit ratio (2D: 4D) predict indirect aggression in women. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 865872. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.02.010Google Scholar
Crick, N. R. (1996). The role of overt aggression, relational aggression, and prosocial behavior in the prediction of children’s future social adjustment. Child Development, 67, 23172327. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01859.xGoogle Scholar
Crick, N. R., Bigbee, M. A., & Howes, C. (1996). Gender differences in children’s normative beliefs about aggression: How do I hurt thee? Let me count the ways. Child Development, 67, 10031014. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01779.xGoogle Scholar
Crick, N. R., & Grotpeter, J. K. (1995). Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment. Child Development, 66, 710722. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00900.xGoogle Scholar
Cross, C. P., Copping, L. T., & Campbell, A. (2011). Sex differences in impulsivity: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 97-130. doi:10.1037/a0021591Google Scholar
Daly, M., & Wilson, M. (1990). Killing the competition. Human Nature, 1, 81107. doi:10.1007/BF02692147Google Scholar
Dane, A. V., Marini, Z. A., Volk, A. A., & Vaillancourt, T. (2017). Physical and relational bullying and victimization: Differential relations with adolescent dating and sexual behaviorAggressive Behavior, 43, 111122. doi:10.1002/ab.21667Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1859). On the origin of species by means of natural selection. New York: Bantam Dell.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1871). The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex. New York: D. Appleton.Google Scholar
Davis, A. C., Dufort, C., Desrochers, J., Vaillancourt, T., & Arnocky, S. (2018a). Gossip as an intrasexual competition strategy: Sex differences in gossip frequency, content, and attitudesEvolutionary Psychological Science, 4, 141153. doi:10.1007/s40806-017- 0124-6.Google Scholar
Davis, A. C., Vaillancourt, T., & Arnocky, S. (2018b). Sex differences in initiating gossip. In Shackelford, T. K. & Weekes-Shackelford, V. A. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of evolutionary psychological science (pp. 18). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-16999- 6_190–1Google Scholar
Davis, A. C., Vaillancourt, T., Arnocky, S., & Doyel, R. (2019). Women’s gossip as an intrasexual competition strategy: An evolutionary approach to gender and discrimination. In Giardini, F. & Wittek, R. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of gossip and reputation (pp. 303321). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Draper, P., & Harpending, H. (1988). A sociobiological perspective on the development of human reproductive strategies. In MacDonald, K. B. (Ed.), Sociobiological perspectives on human development (pp. 340372). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Dunson, D. B., Colombo, B., & Baird, D. D. (2002). Changes with age in the level and duration of fertility in the menstrual cycle. Human Reproduction, 17, 13991403. doi:10.1093/humrep/17.5.1399Google Scholar
Durante, K. M., Li, N. P., & Haselton, M. G. (2008). Changes in women’s choice of dress across the ovulatory cycle: Naturalistic and laboratory task-based evidence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 14511460. doi:10.1177/0146167208323103Google Scholar
Eisner, M. (2003). Long-term historical trends in violent crime. Crime and Justice, 30, 83142. doi:10.1086/652229Google Scholar
Ember, C. R. (1981). A cross-cultural perspective on sex-differences. In Munroe, R. H., Munroe, R. L., & Whiting, B. B. (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural human development (pp. 531580). New York: Garland.Google Scholar
Fink, B., Klappauf, D., Brewer, G., & Shackelford, T. K. (2014). Female physical characteristics and intra-sexual competition in women. Personality and Individual Differences, 58, 138141. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.10.015Google Scholar
Fisher, M. L. (2004). Female intrasexual competition decreases female facial attractiveness. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, Biological Sciences, 271, 283285. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2004.0160Google Scholar
Fisher, M. L. (2015). Women’s competition for mates: Experimental findings leading to ethological studies. Human Ethology Bulletin, 30, 5269.Google Scholar
Fisher, M. L., & Cox, A. (2009). The influence of female attractiveness on competitor derogation. Journal of Evolutionary Psychology, 7, 141155. doi:10.1556 /JEP.7.2009.2.3Google Scholar
Fisher, M. L., & Cox, A. (2011). Four strategies used during intrasexual competition for mates. Personal Relationships, 18, 2038. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2010.01307.xGoogle Scholar
Fisher, M. L., & Moule, K. R. (2013). A new direction for intrasexual competition research: Cooperative versus competitive motherhoodJournal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology, 7, 318325. doi:10.1037/h0099187Google Scholar
Galen, B. R., & Underwood, M. K. (1997). A developmental investigation of social aggression among children. Developmental Psychology, 33, 589600. doi:10.1037/0012- 1649.33.4.589Google Scholar
Gallup, A. C., O’Brien, D. T., & Wilson, D. S. (2011). Intrasexual peer aggression and dating behavior during adolescence: An evolutionary perspective. Aggressive Behavior, 37, 258267. doi:10.1002/ab.20384Google Scholar
Gangestad, S. W., & Buss, D. M. (1993). Pathogen prevalence and human mate preferencesEthology and Sociobiology14(2), 8996. Doi:10.1016/0162-3095(93)90009- 7Google Scholar
Geary, D. C. (2000). Evolution and proximate expression of human paternal investment. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 5577. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.1.55Google Scholar
Gettler, L. T. (2010). Direct male care and hominin evolution: Why male–child interaction is more than a nice social idea. American Anthropologist, 112, 721. doi:10.1111/j.1548-1433.2009.01193.xGoogle Scholar
Graham-Kevan, N., & Archer, J. (2009). Control tactics and partner violence in heterosexual relationships. Evolution and Human Behavior, 30, 445452. doi:10.1016/ j.evolhumbehav.2009.06.007Google Scholar
Grebe, N. M., Gangestad, S. W., Garver-Apgar, C. E., & Thornhill, R. (2013). Women’s luteal-phase sexual proceptivity and the functions of extended sexuality. Psychological Science, 24, 21062110. doi:10.1177/0956797613485965Google Scholar
Griskevicius, V., Tybur, J. M., Gangestad, S. W., Perea, E. F., Shapiro, J. R., & Kenrick, D. T. (2009). Aggress to impress: Hostility as an evolved context-dependent strategy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 980994. doi:10.1037/a0013907Google Scholar
Gustafsson, A., & Lindenfors, P. (2004). Human size evolution: No evolutionary allometric relationship between male and female stature. Journal of Human Evolution, 47, 253266. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.07.004Google Scholar
Haselton, M. G., & Gildersleeve, K. (2011). Can men detect ovulation? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20, 8792. doi:10.1177/0963721411402668Google Scholar
Hess, N. H., & Hagen, E. H. (2006). Sex differences in indirect aggression: Psychological evidence from young adults. Evolution and Human Behavior, 27, 231245. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.11.001Google Scholar
Hill, K. R., & Hurtado, A. M. (1996). Ache life history: The ecology and demography of a foraging people. Hawthorn, NY: Transaction Publishers.Google Scholar
Hrdy, S. B. (1999). Mother Nature: Natural selection and the female of the species. London: Chatto & Windus.Google Scholar
Hrdy, S. B. (2013). The “one animal in all creation about which man knows the least.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, Biological Sciences, 368: 20130072. doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0072Google Scholar
Hutzell, K. L., & Payne, A. A. (2012). The impact of bullying victimization on school avoidance. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 10, 370385. doi:10.1177/1541204012438926Google Scholar
Hyde, J. S. (1986). Gender differences in aggression. In J. S. Hyde & M. C. Linn (Eds.), The psychology of gender: Advances through meta-analysis (pp. 5166). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Jokela, M. (2009). Physical attractiveness and reproductive success in humans: Evidence from the late 20th century United States. Evolution and Human Behavior, 30, 342350. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2009.03.006Google Scholar
Jones, A. G., Rosenqvist, G., Berglund, A., Arnold, S. J., & Avise, J. C. (2000). The Bateman gradient and the cause of sexual selection in a sex-role-reversed pipefishProceedings of the Royal Society of London B, Biological Sciences267, 677680. doi:10.1098 /rspb.2000.1055Google Scholar
Kenrick, D. T., & Keefe, R. C. (1992). Age preferences in mates reflect sex differences in human reproductive strategies. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 15, 7591. doi:10.1017/ S0140525X00067595Google Scholar
Klomek, A. B., Marrocco, F., Kleinman, M., Schonfeld, I. S., & Gould, M. S. (2007). Bullying, depression, and suicidality in adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 4049. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000242237.84925.18Google Scholar
Lagerspetz, K. M., Björkqvist, K., & Peltonen, T. (1988). Is indirect aggression typical of females? Gender differences in aggressiveness in 11‐ to 12‐year‐old children. Aggressive Behavior, 14, 403414. doi:10.1002/1098-2337(1988)14:6<403::AID-AB248 0140602>3.0.CO;2-DGoogle Scholar
Laland, K. N. (1994). Sexual selection with a culturally transmitted mating preferenceTheoretical Population Biology45, 115. doi:10.1006/tpbi.1994.1001Google Scholar
Lansford, J. E., Skinner, A. T., Sorbring, E., Giunta, L. D., Deater‐Deckard, K., Dodge, K. A., … & Uribe Tirado, L. M. (2012). Boys’ and girls’ relational and physical aggression in nine countriesAggressive Behavior38, 298308. doi:10.1002/ab.21433Google Scholar
Lassek, W. D., & Gaulin, S. J. (2009). Costs and benefits of fat-free muscle mass in men: Relationship to mating success, dietary requirements, and native immunity. Evolution and Human Behavior, 30, 322328. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2009.04.002Google Scholar
Ledwell, M., & King, V. (2015). Bullying and internalizing problems: Gender differences and the buffering role of parental communication. Journal of Family Issues, 36, 543566. doi:10.1177/0192513X13491410Google Scholar
Lee, K. S., Brittain, H., & Vaillancourt, T. (2018). Predicting dating behavior from aggression and self‐perceived social status in adolescenceAggressive Behavior, 44, 372381. doi:10.1002/ab.21758Google Scholar
Lee, K. S., Guy, A., Dale, J., & Wolke, D. (2017). Adolescent desire for cosmetic surgery: Associations with bullying and psychological functioning. Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery, 139, 11091118. doi:10.1097/PRS.0000000000003252Google Scholar
Leenaars, L. S., Dane, A. V., & Marini, Z. A. (2008 ). Evolutionary perspective on indirect victimization in adolescence: The role of attractiveness, dating and sexual behavior. Aggressive Behavior, 34, 404415. doi:10.1002/ab.20252Google Scholar
Lease, A. M., Kennedy, C. A., & Axelrod, J. L. (2002). Children’s social constructions of popularity. Social Development, 11, 87109. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00188Google Scholar
Lucas, M., & Koff, E. (2013). How conception risk affects competition and cooperation with attractive women and men. Evolution and Human Behavior, 34, 1622. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2012.08.001Google Scholar
Massar, K., Buunk, A., & Rempt, S. (2012). Age differences in women’s tendency to gossip are mediated by their mate value. Personality Individual Differences, 52, 106109. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.09.013Google Scholar
McAndrew, F. T. (2014). The “sword of a woman”: Gossip and female aggressionAggression and Violent Behavior19, 196199. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2014.04.006Google Scholar
McDougall, P., & Vaillancourt, T. (2015). Long-term adult outcomes of peer victimization in childhood and adolescence: Pathways to adjustment and maladjustment. American Psychologist, 70, 300310. doi:10.1037/a0039174Google Scholar
Miller, J. L., Vaillancourt, T., & Hanna, S. E. (2009). The measurement of “eating-disorder-thoughts” and “eating-disorder-behaviors”: Implications for assessment and detection of eating disorders in epidemiological studies. Eating Behaviors, 10, 8996. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2009.02.002Google Scholar
Morales-Vives, F., & Vigil-Colet, A. (2010). Are there sex differences in physical aggression in the elderly? Personality and Individual Differences49, 659662. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.05.034Google Scholar
Muscarella, F., & Cunningham, M. R. (1996). The evolutionary significance and social perception of male pattern baldness and facial hair. Ethology and Sociobiology, 17, 99117. doi:10.1016/0162-3095(95)00130-1Google Scholar
Nivette, A., Sutherland, A., Eisner, M., & Murray, J. (2019). Sex differences in adolescent physical aggression: Evidence from sixty‐three low‐ and middle‐income countriesAggressive Behavior45, 8292. doi:10.1002/ab.21799Google Scholar
Österman, K., Björkqvist, K., Lagerspetz, K. M., Kaukiainen, A., Landau, S. F., Fraczek, A., & Caprara, G. V. (1998). Cross-cultural evidence of female indirect aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 24, 18. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2337(1998)24:1<1::AID-AB1>3.0.CO;2-RGoogle Scholar
Owens, L., Shute, R., & Slee, P. (2000). “Guess what I just heard!”: Indirect aggression among teenage girls in Australia. Aggressive Behavior, 26, 6783. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098- 2337(2000)26:1<67::AID-AB6>3.0.CO;2-CGoogle Scholar
Pellegrini, A. D., & Long, J. D. (2002). A longitudinal study of bullying, dominance, and victimization during the transition from primary school through secondary school. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 20, 259280. doi:10.1348/026151002166442Google Scholar
Pellegrini, A. D., & Long, J. D. (2003). A sexual selection theory longitudinal analysis of sexual segregation and integration in early adolescence. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 85, 257278. doi:10.1016/S0022-0965(03)00060-2Google Scholar
Piccoli, V., Foroni, F., & Carnaghi, A. (2013). Comparing group dehumanization and intrasexual competition among normally ovulating women and hormonal contraceptive users. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39, 16001609. doi:10.1177/ 0146167213499025Google Scholar
Pisanski, K., & Feinberg, D. R. (2013). Cross-cultural variation in mate preferences for averageness, symmetry, body size, and masculinity. Cross-Cultural Research47, 162197. doi:10.1177/1069397112471806Google Scholar
Plavcan, J. M., & van Schaik, C. P. (1997). Intrasexual competition and body weight dimorphism in anthropoid primates. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 103, 3768. do:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199705)103:1<37::AID-AJPA4>3.0.CO;2-AGoogle Scholar
Provenzano, D. A., Dane, A. V., Farrell, A. H., Marini, Z. A., & Volk, A. A. (2018). Do bullies have more sex? The role of personality. Evolutionary Psychological Science, 4(3), 221232. doi:10.1007/s40806-017-0126-4Google Scholar
Ralls, K. (1977). Sexual dimorphism in mammals: Avian models and unanswered questionsAmerican Naturalist111(981), 917938. doi:10.1086/283223Google Scholar
Reynolds, T., Baumeister, R. F., & Maner, J. K. (2018). Competitive reputation manipulation: Women strategically transmit social information about romantic rivals. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 78, 195209. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2018.03.011Google Scholar
Rhodes, G., Simmons, L. W., & Peters, M. (2005). Attractiveness and sexual behavior: Does attractiveness enhance mating success? Evolution and Human Behavior, 26, 186201. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.08.014Google Scholar
Rohner, R. P. (1976). Sex differences in aggression. Journal of the Society for Psychological Anthropology, 4, 5772. doi:10.1525/eth.1976.4.1.02a00030Google Scholar
Rose, A., Swenson, L., & Waller, E. (2004). Overt and relational aggression and perceived popularity: Developmental differences in concurrent and prospective relationships. Developmental Psychology, 40, 378387. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.3.378Google Scholar
Rueger, S. Y., Malecki, C. K., & Demaray, M. K. (2011). Stability of peer victimization in early adolescence: Effects of timing and duration. Journal of School Psychology, 49, 443464. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2011.04.005Google Scholar
Schmitt, D. P., & Buss, D. M. (1996). Strategic self-promotion and competitor derogation: Sex and context effects on the perceived effectiveness of mate attraction tactics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 11851204. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1185Google Scholar
Schmitt, D. P., & Buss, D. M. (2001). Human mate poaching: Tactics and temptations for infiltrating existing mateships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 894917. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.6.894Google Scholar
Sear, R., Steele, F., McGregor, I. A., & Mace, R. (2002). The effects of kin on child mortality in rural GambiaDemography39(1), 4363. doi:10.1353/dem.20020010Google Scholar
Sell, A., Bryant, G. A., Cosmides, L., Tooby, J., Sznycer, D., von Rueden, C, … Gurven, M. (2010). Adaptations in humans for assessing physical strength from the voice. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 277, 3509-3518. doi:10.1098/ rspb.2010.0769Google Scholar
Sentse, M., Dijkstra, J. K., Salmivalli, C., & Cillessen, A. H. (2013). The dynamics of friendships and victimization in adolescence: A longitudinal social network perspective. Aggressive Behavior, 39, 229238. doi:10.1002/ab.21469Google Scholar
Shackelford, T. K., Goetz, A. T., Guta, F. E., & Schmitt, D. P. (2006). Mate guarding and frequent in-pair copulation in humans. Human Nature, 17, 239252. doi:10.1007/s12110-006-1007-xGoogle Scholar
Shackelford, T. K., & Larsen, R. J. (1999). Facial attractiveness and physical health. Evolution and Human Behavior, 20, 7176. doi:10.1016/S1090-5138(98)00036-1Google Scholar
Singh, D. (1993). Adaptive significance of female physical attractiveness: Role of waist-to-hip ratio. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 293307. doi:10.1037/0022- 3514.65.2.293Google Scholar
Souza, A. L., Conroy-Beam, D., & Buss, D. M. (2016). Mate preferences in Brazil: Evolved desires and cultural evolution over three decadesPersonality and Individual Differences95, 4549. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.01.053Google Scholar
Sunderani, S., Arnocky, S., & Vaillancourt, T. (2013). Individual differences in mate poaching: An examination of hormonal, dispositional, and behavioral mate-value traits. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42, 533542. doi:10.1007/s10508-012-9974-yGoogle Scholar
Symons, D. (1979). The evolution of human sexuality. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Toscano, H., Schubert, T. W., & Sell, A. N. (2014). Judgments of dominance from the face track physical strength. Evolutionary Psychology, 12, 118. doi:10.1177/147470491401200101Google Scholar
Trivers, R. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. In Campbell, B. (Ed.), Sexual selection and the descent of man (pp. 18711971). Chicago: Aldine.Google Scholar
Underwood, M. K., Beron, K. J., & Rosen, L. H. (2009). Continuity and change in social and physical aggression from middle childhood through early adolescence. Aggressive Behavior, 35, 357375. doi:10.1002/ab.20313Google Scholar
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2013). Global study on homicide 2013: Trends, contexts, data. www.unodc.org/documents/gsh/pdfs/2014_GLOBAL_HOMICIDE_BOOK_web.pdfGoogle Scholar
Vaillancourt, T. (2005). Indirect aggression among humans: Social construct or evolutionary adaptation? In Tremblay, R. E., Hartup, W. W., and Archer, J. (Eds.), Developmental origins of aggression (pp. 158177). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Vaillancourt, T. (2013). Do human females use indirect aggression as an intrasexual competition strategy? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, Biological Sciences, 368(1631). doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0080Google Scholar
Vaillancourt, T., & Hymel, S. (2006). Aggression and social status: The moderating roles of sex and peer‐valued characteristics. Aggressive Behavior, 32, 396408. doi:10.1002/ab.20138Google Scholar
Vaillancourt, T., & Krems, J. A. (2018). An evolutionary psychological perspective of indirect aggression in girls and women. In Coyne, S. & Ostrov, J. (Eds.), The development of relational aggression (pp. 111126). Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oso/ 9780190491826.003.0008Google Scholar
Vaillancourt, T., Miller, J. L., Fabgemi, J., Cȏté, S., & Tremblay, R. E. (2007). Trajectories and predictors of indirect aggression: Results from a nationally representative longitudinal study of Canadian children aged 2–10. Aggressive Behavior, 33, 314326. doi:10.1002/ab.20202Google Scholar
Vaillancourt, T., Miller, J. L., & Sharma, A. (2010). “Tripping the prom queen”: Female intrasexual competition and indirect aggression. In Österman, K. (Ed.), Indirect and direct aggression (pp. 1731). Oxford: Oxford PressGoogle Scholar
Vaillancourt, T., & Sharma, A. (2011). Intolerance of sexy peers: Intrasexual competition among women. Aggressive Behavior, 37, 569577. doi:10.1002/ab.20413Google Scholar
Voland, E. (1998). Evolutionary ecology of human reproduction. Annual Review of Anthropology, 27, 347374. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.27.1.347Google Scholar
Volk, A. A., Dane, A. V., Marini, Z. A., & Vaillancourt, T. (2015). Adolescent bullying, dating, and mating: Testing an evolutionary hypothesis. Evolutionary Psychology, 13, 111. doi:10.1177/1474704915613909Google Scholar
Vukovic, J., Jones, B. C., DeBruine, L. M., Little, A. C., Feinberg, D. R., & Welling, L. L. (2009). Circum-menopausal effects on women’s judgements of facial attractiveness. Biology Letters, 5, 6264. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2008.0478Google Scholar
Walters, S., & Crawford, C. B. (1994). The importance of mate attraction for intrasexual competition in men and women. Ethology and Sociobiology, 15, 530. doi:10.1016/0162-3095(94)90025-6Google Scholar
Weisner, T. S., & Gallimore, R. (1977). My brother’s keeper: Child and sibling caretaking. Current Anthropology, 18, 169190. doi:10.1086/201883Google Scholar
White, D. D., Gallup, A. C., & Gallup, G. G. (2010). Indirect peer aggression in adolescence and reproductive behavior. Evolutionary Psychology, 8, 4965. doi:10.1177/ 147470491000800106Google Scholar
Whiting, B., & Edwards, C. P. (1973). A cross-cultural analysis of sex differences in the behavior of children aged three through 11. Journal of Social Psychology, 91, 171188. doi:10.1080/00224545.1973.9923040Google Scholar
Wyckoff, J. P., Asao, K., & Buss, D. M (2019). Gossip as an intrasexual competition strategy: Predicting information sharing from potential mate versus competitor mating strategies. Evolution and Human Behavior, 40, 96104. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2018.08.006Google Scholar
Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Geiger, T. C., & Crick, N. R. (2005). Relational and physical aggression, prosocial behavior, and peer relations gender moderation and bidirectional associations. Journal of Early Adolescence, 25, 421452. doi:10.1177/ 0272431605279841Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×