Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-tf8b9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T08:14:37.689Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

6 - The Origins of Prosociality from a Developmental and Comparative Perspective

from Part I - Development of Prosociality

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 May 2023

By
Felix Warneken  and
Sarah Probst
Edited by
Tina Malti  and
Maayan Davidov
Tina Malti
Affiliation:
University of Toronto
Maayan Davidov
Affiliation:
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Get access

Summary

There has been much debate on the origins of prosocial behavior: do humans come into the world ready to help others, or is this something that must be learned? In this chapter, we approach this question by examining evidence on the ontogenetic and phylogenetic roots of prosocial behavior. First, we examine work with young children, focusing on the earliest developing prosocial behaviors of helping, comforting, and sharing. We then complement this developmental evidence with studies on chimpanzees and bonobos to gain insight into which elements of prosocial behavior might be evolutionarily inherited. Taken together, this evidence suggests that humans have a biological predisposition for prosocial behavior that we share with our ape cousins and that human-specific socialization practices build on this foundation throughout the course of development.

Keywords

prosocial behaviorinfantstoddlerscomparativeevolutionchimpanzeesbonoboshelping
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Prosociality
Development, Mechanisms, Promotion
 , pp. 108 - 126
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Bandstra, N. F., Chambers, C. T., McGrath, P. J., & Moore, C. (2011). The behavioural expression of empathy to others’ pain versus others’ sadness in young children. Pain, 152(5), 1074–1082.Google Scholar
Bar-Tal, D. (1982). Sequential development of helping behavior: A cognitive-learning approach. Developmental Review, 2, 101–124.Google Scholar
Barragan, R. C., Brooks, R., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2020). Altruistic food sharing behavior by human infants after a hunger manipulation. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 1785–1785.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). The nature (and nurture?) of plasticity in early human development. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4(4), 345–351.Google Scholar
Bischof-Köhler, D. (1988). On the connection between empathy and the ability to recognize oneself in the mirror. Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 47(2–3), 147–159.Google Scholar
Bischof-Köhler, D. (1994). Self-objectification and other-oriented emotions: Self-recognition, empathy, and prosocial behaviour in the second year. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 202(4), 349–377.Google Scholar
Blake, P. R. M., McAuliffe, K., Corbit, J., Callaghan, T. C., Barry, O., Bowie, A., Kleutsch, L., Kramer, K. L., Ross, E., Vongsachang, H., Wrangham, R., & Warneken, F. (2015). The ontogeny of fairness in seven societies. Nature, 528, 258–262.Google Scholar
Boesch, C., & Boesch, H. (1989). Hunting behavior of wild chimpanzees in the Taï National Park. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 78, 547–573.Google Scholar
Boesch, C., & Boesch-Achermann, H. (2000). The chimpanzees of the Tai forest. University Press.Google Scholar
Boesch, C., Bole, C., Eckhardt, N., & Boesch, H. (2010). Altruism in forest chimpanzees: The case of adoption. PLuS ONE, 5(1).Google Scholar
Bridgers, S., & Gweon, H. (2018). Means-inference as a source of variability in early helping. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1735–1735.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brownell, C. A. (2016). Prosocial behavior in infancy: The role of socialization. Child Development Perspectives, 10(4), 222–227.Google Scholar
Brownell, C. A., Iesue, S. S., Nichols, S. R., & Svetlova, M. (2013). Mine or yours? Development of sharing in toddlers in relation to ownership understanding. Child Development, 84(3), 906–920.Google Scholar
Brownell, C. A., Svetlova, M., Anderson, R., Nichols, S. R., & Drummond, J. (2013). Socialization of early prosocial behavior: Parents’ talk about emotion is associated with sharing and helping in toddlers. Infancy, 18(1), 91–119.Google Scholar
Burkart, J. M., & Rueth, K. (2013). Preschool children fail primate prosocial game because of attentional task demands. PLoS ONE, 8(7), e68440.Google Scholar
Buttelmann, D., Carpenter, M., & Tomasello, M. (2009). Eighteen-month-old infants show false belief understanding in an active helping paradigm. Cognition, 112, 337–342.Google Scholar
Callaghan, T., Moll, H., Rakoczy, H., Warneken, F., Liszkowski, U., Behne, T., & Tomasello, M. (2011). Early social cognition in three cultural contexts. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 76(2), vii–142.Google Scholar
Chiarella, S. S., & Poulin-Dubois, D. (2013). Cry babies and Pollyannas: Infants can detect unjustified emotional reactions. Infancy, 18(s1), E81–E96.Google Scholar
Cirelli, L. K., Wan, S. J., & Trainor, L. J. (2014). Fourteen-month-old infants use interpersonal synchrony as a cue to direct helpfulness. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 369(1658), 20130400.Google Scholar
Cronbach, L. J. (1975). Beyond the two disciplines of scientific psychology. The American Psychologist, 30(2), 116–127.Google Scholar
Dahl, A., Satlof-Bedrick, E. S., Hammond, S. I., Drummond, J. K., Waugh, W. E., & Brownell, C. A. (2017). Explicit scaffolding increases simple helping in younger infants. Developmental Psychology, 53(3), 407–416.Google Scholar
Davidov, M., Paz, Y., Roth-Hanania, R., Uzefovsky, F., Orlitsky, T., Mankuta, D., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2021). Caring babies: Concern for others in distress during infancy. Developmental Science, 24(2), e13016. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13016Google Scholar
Davidov, M., Vaish, A., Knafo-Noam, A., & Hastings, P. D. (2016). The motivational foundations of prosocial behavior from a developmental perspective – Evolutionary roots and key psychological mechanisms: Introduction to the special section. Child Development, 87(6), 1655–1667.Google Scholar
de Waal, F. (1996). Good natured. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
de Waal, F. B. M., & Aureli, F. (1996). Consolation, reconciliation and a possible cognitive difference between macaques and chimpanzees. In Russon, A. E., Bard, K. A., & Parker, S. T. (Eds.), Reaching into thought: The minds of great apes (pp. 80–110). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Denham, S. A. (1986). Social cognition, prosocial behavior, and emotion in preschoolers: Contextual validation. Child Development, 57(1), 194–201.Google Scholar
Dondi, M., Simion, F., & Caltran, G. (1999). Can newborns discriminate between their own cry and the cry of another newborn infant? Developmental Psychology, 35(2), 418–426.Google Scholar
Dunfield, K. A., & Kuhlmeier, V. A. (2010). Intention-mediated selective helping in infancy. Psychological Science, 21(4), 523–527.Google Scholar
Dunfield, K. A., & Kuhlmeier, V. A. (2013). Classifying prosocial behavior: Children’s responses to instrumental need, emotional distress, and material desire. Child Development, 84(5), 1766–1776.Google Scholar
Dunfield, K. A., Kuhlmeier, V. A., O’Connell, L., & Kelley, E. (2011). Examining the diversity of prosocial behaviour: Helping, sharing, and comforting in infancy. Infancy, 16(3), 227–247.Google Scholar
Dunn, J., & Munn, P. (1986). Siblings and the development of prosocial behaviour. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 9(3), 265–284.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., & Spinrad, T. (2006). Prosocial development. In Eisenberg, N. (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., Vol. 3, pp. 646–718). John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Wolchik, S. A., Goldberg, L., & Engel, I. (1992). Parental values, reinforcement, and young children’s prosocial behavior: A longitudinal study. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 153(1), 19–36.Google Scholar
Engel, C. (2011). Dictator games: A meta study. Experimental Economics, 14(4), 583–610.Google Scholar
Fouts, R. S., & Mills, S. T. (1997). Next of kin: My conversations with chimpanzees. William Morrow.Google Scholar
Gilby, I. C. (2006). Meat sharing among the Gombe chimpanzees: Harassment and reciprocal exchange. Animal Behavior, 71, 953–963.Google Scholar
Greenberg, J. R., Hamann, K., Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2010). Chimpanzee helping in collaborative and noncollaborative contexts. Animal Behavior, 80(5), 873–880.Google Scholar
Grusec, J. E., & Redler, E. (1980). Attribution, reinforcement, and altruism: A developmental analysis. Developmental Psychology, 16(5), 525–534.Google Scholar
Hamann, K., Warneken, F., Greenberg, J. R., & Tomasello, M. (2011). Collaboration encourages equal sharing in children but not in chimpanzees. Nature, 476(7360), 328–331.Google Scholar
Hamann, K., Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2012). Children’s developing commitments to joint goals. Child Development, 83(1), 137–145.Google Scholar
Hare, B., & Kwetuenda, S. (2010). Bonobos voluntarily share their own food with others. Current Biology, 20(5), R230–R231.Google Scholar
Hay, D. F. (1979). Cooperative interactions and sharing between very young children and their parents. Developmental Psychology, 15(6), 647–653.Google Scholar
Hay, D. F., Castle, J., Davies, L., Demetriou, H., & Stimson, C. A. (1999). Prosocial action in very early childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40(6), 905–916.Google Scholar
Hepach, R. (2017). Prosocial arousal in children. Child Development Perspectives, 11(1), 50–55.Google Scholar
Hepach, R., Haberl, K., Lambert, S., & Tomasello, M. (2017). Toddlers help anonymously. Infancy, 22(1), 130–145.Google Scholar
Hepach, R., Kante, N., & Tomasello, M. (2017). Toddlers help a peer. Child Development, 88(5), 1642–1652.Google Scholar
Hepach, R., Vaish, A., Grossmann, T., & Tomasello, M. (2016). Young children want to see others get the help they need. Child Development, 87(6), 1703–1714.Google Scholar
Hepach, R., Vaish, A., & Tomasello, M. (2013). Young children sympathize less in response to unjustified emotional distress. Developmental Psychology, 49(6), 1132–1138.Google Scholar
Hepach, R., Vaish, A., & Tomasello, M. (2017). Children’s intrinsic motivation to provide help themselves after accidentally harming others. Child Development, 88(4), 1251–1264.Google Scholar
Hepach, R., & Warneken, F. (2018). Editorial overview: Early development of prosocial behavior: Revealing the foundation of human prosociality. Current Opinion in Psychology, 20, iv–viii.Google Scholar
Hockings, K. J., Humle, T., Anderson, J. R., Biro, D., Sousa, C., Ohashi, G., & Matsuzawa, T. (2007). Chimpanzees share forbidden fruit. PLoS ONE, 2(9), e886.Google Scholar
Hoffman, M. L. (2000). Empathy and moral development: Implications for caring and justice. Cambridge University PressGoogle Scholar
Hook, J. G., & Cook, T. D. (1979). Equity theory and the cognitive ability of children. Psychological Bulletin, 86(3), 429–445.Google Scholar
House, B. R., Silk, J. B., Henrich, J., Barrett, H. C., Scelza, B. A., Boyette, A. H., Hewlett, B. S., McElreath, R., & Laurence, S. (2013). Ontogeny of prosocial behavior across diverse societies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 110(36), 14586–14591.Google Scholar
House, B. R., Silk, J. B., Lambeth, S. P., & Schapiro, S. J. (2014). Task design influences prosociality in captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). PLoS ONE, 9(9), e103422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howes, C., & Farver, J. (1987). Toddlers’ responses to the distress of their peers. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 8(4), 441–452.Google Scholar
Ibbotson, P. (2014). Little dictators: A developmental meta-analysis of prosocial behavior. Current Anthropology, 55(6), 814–821.Google Scholar
Jensen, K., Hare, B., Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2006). What’s in it for me? Self-regard precludes altruism and spite in chimpanzees. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Science, 273, 1013–1021.Google Scholar
Kaneko, R., & Hamazaki, T. (1987). Prosocial behavior manifestations of young children in an orphanage Psychologia, 30, 235–242.Google Scholar
Kärtner, J., Keller, H., & Chaudhary, N. (2010). Cognitive and social influences on early prosocial behavior in two sociocultural contexts. Developmental Psychology, 46(4), 905–914.Google Scholar
Knafo, A., Israel, S., & Ebstein, R. P. (2011). Heritability of children’s prosocial behavior and differential susceptibility to parenting by variation in the dopamine receptor D4 gene. Development and Psychopathology, 23(1), 53–67.Google Scholar
Knafo, A., Zahn-Waxler, C., Van Hulle, C., Robinson, J. L., & Rhee, S. H. (2008). The developmental origins of a disposition toward empathy: Genetic and environmental contributions. Emotion, 8(6), 737–752.Google Scholar
Knudsen, B., & Liszkowski, U. (2012a). 18-month-olds predict specific action mistakes through attribution of false belief, not ignorance, and intervene accordingly. Infancy, 17(6), 672–691.Google Scholar
Knudsen, B., & Liszkowski, U. (2012b). Eighteen- and 24-month-old infants correct others in anticipation of action mistakes. Developmental Science, 15(1), 113–122.Google Scholar
Knudsen, B., & Liszkowski, U. (2013). One-year-olds warn others about negative action outcomes. Journal of Cognition and Development, 14(3), 424–436.Google Scholar
Köster, M., Itakura, S., Omori, M., & Kärtner, J. (2019). From understanding others’ needs to prosocial action: Motor and social abilities promote infants’ helping. Developmental Science, 22(6), e12804.Google Scholar
Köster, M., Ohmer, X., Nguyen, T. D., & Kärtner, J. (2016). Infants understand others’ needs. Psychological Science, 27(4), 542–548.Google Scholar
Martin, A., & Olson, K. R. (2013). When kids know better: Paternalistic helping in 3-year-old children. Developmental Psychology, 49(11), 2071.Google Scholar
Meaney, M. J. (2010). Epigenetics and the biological definition of gene × environment interactions. Child Development, 81(1), 41–79.Google Scholar
Melis, A. P., Engelmann, J. M., & Warneken, F. (2018). Correspondence: Chimpanzee helping is real, not a byproduct. Nature Communications, 9(1), 615–613.Google Scholar
Melis, A. P., Hare, B., & Tomasello, M. (2008). Do chimpanzees reciprocate received favours? Animal Behaviour, 76(3), 951–962.Google Scholar
Melis, A. P., Warneken, F., & Hare, B. (2010). Collaboration and helping in chimpanzees. In Lonsdorf, E. V., Ross, S. R., & Matsuzawa, T. (Eds.), The mind of the chimpanzee: Ecological and experimental perspectives (pp. 265–281). University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Melis, A. P., Warneken, F., Jensen, K., Schneider, A. C., Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2011). Chimpanzees help conspecifics obtain food and non-food items. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Science, 278(1710), 1405–1413.Google Scholar
Muller, M. N., & Mitani, J. C. (2005). Conflict and cooperation in wild chimpanzees. Advances in the Study of Behavior, 35, 275–331.Google Scholar
Paulus, M. (2018). The multidimensional nature of early prosocial behavior: A motivational perspective. Current Opinion in Psychology, 20, 111–116.Google Scholar
Pettygrove, D. M., Hammond, S. I., Karahuta, E. L., Waugh, W. E., & Brownell, C. A. (2013). From cleaning up to helping out: Parental socialization and children’s early prosocial behavior. Infant Behavior and Development, 36(4), 843–846.Google Scholar
Pruetz, J. D. (2010). Targeted helping by a wild adolescent male chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus): Evidence for empathy? Journal of Ethology, 29(2), 365–368.Google Scholar
Rosati, A. G., DiNicola, L. M., & Buckholtz, J. W. (2018). Chimpanzee cooperation is fast and independent from self-control. Psychological Science, 29(11), 1832–1845.Google Scholar
Roth-Hanania, R., Davidov, M., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2011). Empathy development from 8 to 16 months: Early signs of concern for others. Infant Behavior and Development, 34(3), 447–458.Google Scholar
Sagi, A., & Hoffman, M. L. (1976). Empathic distress in the newborn. Developmental Psychology, 12(2), 175–176.Google Scholar
Schachner, A. C. W., Newton, E. K., Thompson, R. A., & Goodman-Wilson, M. (2018). Becoming prosocial: The consistency of individual differences in early prosocial behavior. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 43, 42–51.Google Scholar
Schmidt, M. F. H., & Sommerville, J. A. (2011). Fairness expectations and altruistic sharing in 15-month-old human infants. PLoS ONE, 6(10), 1–7.Google Scholar
Silk, J. B., Brosnan, S. F., Vonk, J., Henrich, J., Povinelli, D. J., Richardson, A. S., Lambeth, S. P., Mascaro, J., & Schapiro, S. J. (2005). Chimpanzees are indifferent to the welfare of unrelated group members. Nature, 437(7063), 1357–1359.Google Scholar
Simner, M. L. (1971). Newborn’s response to the cry of another infant. Developmental Psychology, 5(1), 136–150.Google Scholar
Smith, C. E., Blake, P. R., & Harris, P. L. (2013). I should but I won’t: Why young children endorse norms of fair sharing but do not follow them. PLoS ONE, 8(3), e59510.Google Scholar
Sommerville, J. A., Enright, E. A., Horton, R. O., Lucca, K., Sitch, M. J., & Kirchner-Adelhart, S. (2018). Infants’ prosocial behavior is governed by cost-benefit analyses. Cognition, 177, 12–20.Google Scholar
Sommerville, J. A., Schmidt, M. F., Yun, J. E., & Burns, M. (2013). The development of fairness expectations and prosocial behavior in the second year of life. Infancy, 18(1), 40–66.Google Scholar
Svetlova, M., Nichols, S. R., & Brownell, C. A. (2010). Toddlers’ prosocial behavior: From instrumental to empathic to altruistic helping. Child Development, 81(6), 1814–1827.Google Scholar
Tan, J., Ariely, D., & Hare, B. (2016). Bonobos are prosocial towards strangers. International Journal of Psychology, 51, 257.Google Scholar
Tan, J., & Hare, B. (2013). Bonobos share with strangers. PLoS ONE, 8(1), e51922.Google Scholar
Tan, J., Kwetuenda, S., & Hare, B. (2015). Preference or paradigm? Bonobos show no evidence of other-regard in the standard prosocial choice task. Behaviour, 152, 521–544.Google Scholar
Tanaka, M., & Yamamoto, S. (2009). Token transfer between mother and offspring chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Mother-offspring interaction in a competitive situation. Animal Cognition, 12(Suppl 1), S19–S26.Google Scholar
Teleki, G. (1973). The predatory behavior of wild chimpanzees. Bucknell University Press.Google Scholar
Tomasello, M., & Warneken, F. (2008). Share and share alike. Nature, 454, 1057–1058.Google Scholar
Ueno, A., & Matsuzawa, T. (2004). Food transfer between chimpanzee mothers and their infants. Primates, 45(4), 231–239.Google Scholar
Vaish, A. (2018). The prosocial functions of early social emotions: The case of guilt. Current Opinion in Psychology, 20, 25–29.Google Scholar
Vaish, A., Carpenter, M., & Tomasello, M. (2009). Sympathy through affective perspective taking and its relation to prosocial behavior in toddlers. Developmental Psychology, 45(2), 534–543.Google Scholar
Vaish, A., Carpenter, M., & Tomasello, M. (2010). Young children selectively avoid helping people with harmful intentions. Child Development, 81(6), 1661–1669.Google Scholar
Vonk, J., Brosnan, S. F., Silk, J. B., Henrich, J., Richardson, A. S., Lambeth, S. P., Schapiro, S. J., & Povinelli, D. J. (2008). Chimpanzees do not take advantage of very low cost opportunities to deliver food to unrelated group members. Animal Behavior, 75, 1757–1770.Google Scholar
Warneken, F. (2013). Young children proactively remedy unnoticed accidents. Cognition, 126(1), 101–108.Google Scholar
Warneken, F. (2018). How children solve the two challenges of cooperation. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 205–229.Google Scholar
Warneken, F., Hare, B., Melis, A. P., Hanus, D., & Tomasello, M. (2007). Spontaneous altruism by chimpanzees and young children. PLoS Biology, 5(7), 1414–1420.Google Scholar
Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2006). Altruistic helping in human infants and young chimpanzees. Science, 311(5765), 1301–1303.Google Scholar
Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2007). Helping and cooperation at 14 months of age. Infancy, 11(3), 271–294.Google Scholar
Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2008). Extrinsic rewards undermine altruistic tendencies in 20-month-olds. Developmental Psychology, 44(6), 1785–1788.Google Scholar
Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2009). Varieties of altruism in children and chimpanzees. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13(9), 397–402.Google Scholar
Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2013). Parental presence and encouragement do not influence helping in young children. Infancy 18(3), 345–368.Google Scholar
Whiting, B. B., & Whiting, J. W. (1975). Children of six cultures: A psycho-cultural analysis. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wobber, V., Wrangham, R., & Hare, B. (2010). Bonobos exhibit delayed development of social behavior and cognition relative to chimpanzees [Comparative Study Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Research Support, U.S. Gov’t, Non-P.H.S.]. Current Biology, 20(3), 226–230.Google Scholar
Wrangham, R. (1975). Behavioural ecology of chimpanzees in gombe national park [PhD thesis]. Cambridge University.Google Scholar
Yamamoto, S., Humle, T., & Tanaka, M. (2009). Chimpanzees help each other upon request. PLoS ONE 4(10), 1–7.Google Scholar
Yamamoto, S., Humle, T., & Tanaka, M. (2012). Chimpanzees’ flexible targeted helping based on an understanding of conspecifics’ goals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 109(9), 3588–3592.Google Scholar
Yamamoto, S., & Tanaka, M. (2010). The influence of kin relationship and reciprocal context on chimpanzees’ other-regarding preferences. Animal Behaviour, 79, 595–602.Google Scholar
Zahn-Waxler, C., Radke-Yarrow, M., Wagner, E., & Chapman, M. (1992). Developmental concern for others. Developmental Psychology, 28(1), 126–136.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×