Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-r5fsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T23:34:40.327Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

37 - Intelligence in Worldwide Perspective

A Twenty-First-Century Update

from Part VII - Intelligence and Its Role in Society

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 December 2019

By
Weihua Niu
Edited by
Robert J. Sternberg
Robert J. Sternberg
Affiliation:
Cornell University, New York
Get access

Summary

This chapter reviews both implicit and explicit theories of intelligence worldwide and suggests that intelligence is both general and culturally specific. Although people around the world share some core views in their conceptions of intelligence, including cognitive competence (both verbal and nonverbal) and social-emotional competence, there are cultural variations regarding emphasis of different aspects. In general, people from Asia, Africa, and South America emphasize social, emotional, and moral aspects of intelligence more than did their counterparts from Western Europe and North America. The chapter also discusses the impact of globalization in the twenty-first century on the evolution of concepts of intelligence and concludes that, as the concept of intelligence has become increasingly inclusive, so do the measurements of intelligences.

Keywords

intelligencecultureimplicit theoriesexplicit theoriescognitive competencesocial-emotional competence
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence , pp. 893 - 915
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alexandra, V. (2018). Predicting CQ development in the context of experiential cross-cultural training: The role of social dominance orientation and the propensity to change stereotypes. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 17(1), 62–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/amle.2015.0096Google Scholar
Alhashemi, S. E. (2014). Measuring emotional intelligence of university students: A comparison between China and Bahrain. International Journal of Social and Organizational Dynamics in IT, 3(4), 59–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ang, S., & Van Dyne, L. (2008). Conceptualization of cultural intelligence: Definition, distinctiveness, and nomological network. In Ang, S., & Van Dyne, L. (Eds.), Handbook of cultural intelligence: Theory, measurement, and applications (pp. 3–15). New York: Sharpe.Google Scholar
Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., & Koh, C. (2006). Personality correlates of the four-factor model of cultural intelligence. Group and Organization Management, 31(1), 100–123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Azuma, H., & Kashiwagi, K. (1987). Descriptions for an intelligent person: A Japanese study. Japanese Psychological Research, 29, 17–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bai, X., Liu, H., & Hu, X. (2007). Development of high school teachers and students’ view on implicit theories of intelligence. [Chinese]. Studies of Psychology and Behavior, 5(2), 81–85.Google Scholar
Beller, M., & Gafni, N. (1995). Equating and validating translated scholastic aptitude tests: The Israeli case. In Ben-Shakhar, G. & Lieblich, A. (Eds.), Studies in psychology in honor of Solomon Kugelmass (pp. 202–219). Jerusalem: Magnes Press.Google Scholar
Brackett, M. A., & Mayer, J. D. (2003). Convergent, discriminate, and incremental validity of competing measures of EI. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(9), 1147–1158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brody, N. (1992). Intelligence (2nd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Bruner, J. S., Shapiro, D., & Tagiuri, R. (1958). The meaning of traits in isolation and in combination. In Tagiuri, R. & Petrullo, L. (Eds.), Person perception and interpersonal behavior (pp.278–288). Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Cai, X., & Jiang, L. (1995). A cross-cultural study of the intellectual concepts of junior and senior middle school students from five nationalities in Southwest China. [Chinese]. The Science of Psychology, 18, 346–350.Google Scholar
Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Dissou, G., Furnham, A., & Bales, A. (2010). Personality traits and lay conceptions of intelligence. In Villanueva, J. P. (Ed.), Personality traits: Classifications, effects and changes (psychology of emotions, motivations, and actions) UK ed Edition (pp. 109–123). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers.Google Scholar
Chen, X. P., Liu, D., & Portnoy, R. (2012). A multilevel investigation of motivational cultural intelligence, organizational diversity climate, and cultural sales: Evidence from US real estate firms. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(1), 93–106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chua, R. Y., & Ng, K. Y. (2017). Not just how much you know: Interactional effect of cultural knowledge and metacognition on creativity in a global context. Management and Organization Review, 13(2), 281–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, M. J. (1994). Chinese and Australian concepts of intelligence. Psychology and Developing Societies, 6, 101–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, C. S., Lee, S. Y., & Stevenson, H. W. (1996). Academic achievement and motivation of Chinese students: A cross-national perspective. In Lau, S. (Ed.). Growing up the Chinese way: Chinese child and adolescent development (pp. 69–91). Hong Kong: Chinese University Press.Google Scholar
Chen, W. W., & Wong, Y. L. (2014). What my parents make me believe in learning: The role of filial piety in Hong Kong students’ motivation and academic achievement. International Journal of Psychology, 49(4), 249–256.Google Scholar
Cole, M., Gay, J., & Glick, J. (1967). A cross-cultural study of clustering in free recall. Psychonomic Bulletin, 1(2), 18.Google Scholar
Confucius, (2010). The doctrine of the mean (trans. J. Leggs). Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing. (Original translation published 1893.)Google Scholar
Crowne, K. A. (2008). What leads to cultural intelligence? Business Horizons, 51(5), 391–399. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2008.03.010CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crowne, K. A. (2009). The relationships among social intelligence, emotional intelligence and cultural intelligence. Organization Management Journal, 6, 148–163. https://doi.org/10.1057/omj.2009.20CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crowne, K. A. (2013). An empirical analysis of three intelligences. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 45(2), 105–114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0029110.Google Scholar
Depaula, P. D., Azzollini, S. C., Cosentino, A. C., & Castillo, S. E. (2016). Personality, character strengths and cultural intelligence: “Extraversion” or “openness” as further factors associated to the cultural skills. Avances en Psicología Latinoamericana, 34(2), 415–436.Google Scholar
Detterman, D. K. (1986). Qualitative integration: The last word? In Sternberg, R. J. & Detterman, D. K. (Eds.), What is intelligence: Contemporary viewpoints on its nature and definition (pp.163–166). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing.Google Scholar
Earley, P. C. (2002). Redefining interactions across cultures and organizations: Moving forward with cultural intelligence. Research in Organizational Behavior, 24, 271–299. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-3085(02)24008-3Google Scholar
Earley, P. C., & Mosakowski, E. (2004). Cultural intelligence. Harvard Business Review, 82(10), 139–146.Google ScholarPubMed
Ekermans, G., & Privaatsak, X. (2009). Emotional intelligence across cultures: Theoretical and methodological considerations. In Stough, C., Saklofske, D. H., & Parker, J. (Eds.), Assessing emotional intelligence: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 259–290). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Fang, F., & Keats, D. (1987). A cross-cultural study on the conception of intelligence. [Chinese.] Acta Psychologica Sinica, 19(3), 255–262.Google Scholar
Fang, F., Schei, V., & Selart, M. (2018). Hype or hope? A new look at the research on cultural intelligence. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 66, 148–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2018.04.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frey, M. C., & Detterman, D. K. (2004). Scholastic assessment or g? The relationship between the scholastic assessment test and general cognitive ability. Psychological Science, 15(6), 373–378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Furnham, A., & Mkhize, N. (2004). Indian and Isi-Zulu-speaking South African parents’ estimates on their own and their children’s intelligence. South African Journal of Psychology, 34, 363–384.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fwu, B., Chen, S., Wei, C., & Wang, H. H. (2017). The mediating role of self-exertion on the effects of effort on learning virtues and emotional distress in academic failure in a Confucian context. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1033–1089.Google Scholar
Gabel-Shemueli, R., Dolan, S., & Cerdin, J. (2005). Emotional Intelligence as predictor of cultural adjustment for success in global assignments. Career Development International, 10, 375–395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garcia-Cepero, M. C., & McCoach, D. B. (2009). Educators’ implicit theories of intelligence and beliefs about the identification of gifted students. Universitas Psychologica, 8(2), 295–310.Google Scholar
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Gardner, H. (1995). Reflections on multiple intelligences: Myths and messages. Phi Delta Kappan, 77, 200–203, 206–209.Google Scholar
Gardner, H. (1998). A multiplicity of intelligences. Scientific American Presents, 9, 18–23.Google Scholar
Gardner, H. (2002). On the three faces of intelligence. Daedalus, 131(1), 139–142.Google Scholar
Georgas, J., Van de Vijver, F. J. R., Weiss, L. G., & Saklofske, D. H. (2003). In Georgas, J., Weiss, L. G., Van de Vijver, F. J., & Saflofske, D. H. (Eds.), Culture and children’s intelligence: Cross-cultural analysis of the WISC-III (pp. 227–240). San Diego: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Gill, R., & Keats, D. (1980). Elements of intellectual competence: Judgments by Australian and Malay university students. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 11, 233–243.Google Scholar
Greenfield, P. M. (1997). You can’t take it with you: Why ability assessments don’t cross cultures. American Psychologist, 52, 1115–1124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenfield, P. M. (1998). The cultural evolution of IQ. In Neisser, U. (Ed.), The rising curve: Long term gains in IQ and related measures (pp. 81–123). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Grigorenko, E. L., Geissler, P. W., Prince, R., Okatcha, F. Nokes, C. et al. (2001). The organisation of Luo conceptions of intelligence: A study of implicit theories of Kenya village. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 25(4), 367–378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunkel, M., Schlaegel, C., & Teras, V. (2016). Cultural values, emotional intelligence, and conflict handling styles: A global study. Journal of World Business, 51(4), 568–585.)Google Scholar
Harrison, N. (2012). Investigating the impact of personality and early life experiences on intercultural interaction in internationalised universities. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36(2), 224–237. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.03.007Google Scholar
Hau, K. T., & Ho, I. T. (2012). Chinese students’ motivation and achievement. In Bond, M. H. (Ed.). The Oxford handbook of Chinese psychology (pp. 187–204). New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holloway, S. D. (1988). Concepts of ability and effort in Japan and the United States. Review of Educational Research, 58(3), 327–345.Google Scholar
Jensen, A. (1998). The suppressed relationship between IQ and the reaction time slope parameter of the Hick function. Intelligence, 26(1), 43–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, Y. J., & Van Dyne, L. (2012). Cultural intelligence and international leadership potential: The importance of contact for members of the majority. Applied Psychology, 61(2), 272–294. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2011.00468.xGoogle Scholar
Ko, B., Boswell, B., & Yoon, S. (2015). Developing intercultural competence through global link experiences in physical education. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 20(4), 366–380. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2013.837441Google Scholar
Kopic, K., Vranic, A., & Zarevski, P. (2009). Implicit theories of intelligence in elementary school eighth-grade pupils. Drustvena Istrazivanja, 18(3), 503–521.Google Scholar
Korzilius, H., Bücker, J. J., & Beerlage, S. (2017). Multiculturalism and innovative work behavior: The mediating role of cultural intelligence. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 56, 13–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2016.11.001Google Scholar
Kwak, K. (2003). South Korea. In Georgas, J., Weiss, L. G., Van de Vijver, F. J., & Saflofske, D. H. (Eds.), Culture and children’s intelligence: Cross-cultural analysis of the WISC-III (227–240). San Diego: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Lautrey, J., & de Ribaupierre, A. (2004). Psychology of human intelligence in France and French-Speaking Switzerland. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), International handbook of intelligence (pp. 104–134). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lie, D., Suyasa, P. T., & Wijaya, E. (2016). The mediating role of cultural intelligence in the relationship between the openness to experience personality trait and job satisfaction among expatriates. Makara Human Behaviour Studies in Asia, 20(1), 46–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.7454/mssh.v20i1.3486Google Scholar
Lim, W., Plucker, J. A., & Im, K. (2002). We are more alike than we think we are: Implicit theories of intelligence with a Korean sample, Intelligence, 30(2),185–208.Google Scholar
MacNab, B. R., & Worthley, R. (2012). Individual characteristics as predictors of cultural intelligence development: The relevance of self-efficacy. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36(1), 62–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.12.001.Google Scholar
Mayer, J. D., DiPaolo, M., & Salovey, P. (1990). Perceiving the affective content in ambiguous visual stimuli: A component of emotional intelligence. Journal of Personality Assessment, 50, 772–781.Google Scholar
Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. (2000). Models of emotional intelligence. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Handbook of Intelligence (pp. 396–420). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. (2002). Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT), Version 2.0. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.Google Scholar
Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. (2004). Emotional intelligence: Theory, findings, and implications. Psychological Inquiry, 15(3), 197–215.Google Scholar
Moon, H. K., Choi, B. K., & Jung, J. S. (2012). Previous international experience, cross‐cultural training, and expatriates’ cross‐cultural adjustment: Effects of cultural intelligence and goal orientation. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 23(3), 285–330. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21131CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moon, H. K., Choi, B. K., & Jung, J. S. (2013). Comprehensive examination on antecedents of cultural intelligence: Case of South Korea. Personnel Review, 42(4), 440–465. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/PR-10-2011-0146CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muñiz, J., Bartram, D., Evers, A., Boben, D., Matesic, K., Glabeke, K., et al. (2001). Testing practices in European countries. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 17(3), 201–211.Google Scholar
Muñiz, J., Prieto, G., Almeida, L., & Bartram, D. (1999). Test use in Spain, Portugal and Latin American countries. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 15(2), 151–157. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027//1015-5759.15.2.151Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1979). The concept of intelligence. In Sternberg, R. J. & Detterman, D. T. (Eds.), Human intelligence: Perspectives on its theory and measurement (pp. 179–189). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T. J., Boykin, A.W., Brody, N., Ceci, S. J. et al. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American Psychologist, 51(2), 77–101.Google Scholar
Niu, W., & Brass, J. (2011). Intelligence in worldwide perspective. In Kaufman, S & Sternberg, R. J. (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of intelligence (pp. 623–646). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Oakland, T. (2009). How universal are test development and use? In Grigorenko, E. (Ed.), Assessment of abilities and competencies in an era of globalization (pp. 1–40). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Oakland, T., Douglas, S., & Kane, H. (2016). Top ten standardized tests used internationally with children and youth by school psychologists in 64 countries: A 24 year follow-up study. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 34(2), 166–176.Google Scholar
Paulhus, D. L., Wehr, P., Harms, P. D., & Strasser, D. I. (2002). Use of exemplar surveys to reveal implicit types of intelligence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1051–1062.Google Scholar
Peng, K., & Nisbett, R. E. (1999). Culture, dialectics, and reasoning about contradiction. American Psychologist, 54(9), 741–754.Google Scholar
Plato, (1992). The Republic (trans. G. M. A. Grube) (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing.Google Scholar
Rosenblatt, V., Worthley, R., & MacNab, B. (2013). From contact to development in experiential cultural intelligence education: The mediating influence of expectancy disconfirmation. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 12(3), 356–379. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/amle.2012.0199Google Scholar
Ruzgis, P. M., & Grigorenko, E. L. (1994). Cultural meaning systems, intelligence and personality. In Sternberg, R. J. & Ruzgis, P. (Eds.), Personality and intelligence (pp. 248–270). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9, 185–211.Google Scholar
Salovey, P., & Pizarro, D. A. (2003). The value of emotional intelligence. In Sternberg, R. J., Lautrey, J., & Lubart, T. I. (Eds.), Models of intelligence: International perspectives (pp. 263–278). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Saklofske, D. H., Van de Vijver, F. J. R., Oakland, T., Mpofu, E., & Suzuki, L. A. (2015). Intelligence and culture: History and assessment. In Goldstein, S, Princiotta, D, Naglieri, J (Eds.), Handbook of intelligence: Evolutionary theory, historical perspective, and current concepts (pp. 341–365). New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-1562-0_22Google Scholar
Sato, T., Namiki, H., Ando, J., & Hatano, G. (2004). Japanese conception of and research on human intelligence. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), International handbook of intelligence (pp. 302–324). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Serpell, R. (1974). Aspects of intelligence in a developing country. African Social Research, 17, 576–596.Google Scholar
Serpell, R. (2000). Intelligence and culture. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Handbook of intelligence (pp. 549–580). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Serpell, R., & Jere-Folotiya, J. (2008). Developmental assessment, cultural context, gender, and schooling in Zambia. International Journal of Psychology, 43(2), 88–96.Google Scholar
Srivastava, A. K., & Misra, G. (2001). Lay people’s understanding and use of intelligence: An Indian perspective. Psychology and Developing Societies, 13(1), 25–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/097133360101300102CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stemler, S. E., & Sternberg, R. J. (2006). Using situational judgment tests to measure practical intelligence. In Weekley, J. A. & Ployhart, R. E. (Eds.), Situational judgment tests: Theory, measurement, and application (pp. 107–131). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 607–627.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1997). Successful intelligence. New York: Plume.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (2003). Construct validity of the theory of successful intelligence. In Sternbger, R. J., Lautrey, J., & Lubart, T. I. (Eds): Models of intelligence: International perspectives (pp. 55–77). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Culture and intelligence. American Psychologist, 59, 325–338.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., Conway, B. E., Ketron, J. L., & Bernstein, M. (1981). People’s conceptions of intelligence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41(1), 37–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2006). Cultural intelligence and successful intelligence. Group and Organization Management, 31(1), 27–39.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., Grigorenko, E. L., Ngorosho, D., Tantufuye, E., Mbise, A., Nokes, C, et al. (2002). Assessing intellectual potential in rural Tanzanian school children. Intelligence, 30(2), 141–162.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., Nokes, C., Geissler, P. W., Prince, R., Okatcha, F., Bundy, D. A, et al. (2001). The relationship between academic and practical intelligence: A case study in Kenya. Intelligence, 29 (5), 401–418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swami, V., Furnham, A., Maakip, I., Ahmad, M. S., Naw, N.H.M., Voo, P. S. K. et al. (2008). Beliefs about the meaning and measurement of intelligence: A cross-cultural comparison of American, British, and Malaysian undergraduates. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 22(2), 235–246.Google Scholar
Thorndike, R. L., & Stein, S. (1937). An evaluation of the attempts to measure social intelligence. Psychological Bulletin, 34, 275–285. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0053850Google Scholar
Van de Vijver, F. J. R. (2003). Principles of adaptation of intelligence tests to other cultures. In Georgas, J., Weiss, L. G., Van de Vijver, F. J., & Saflofske, D. H. (Eds.), Culture and children’s intelligence: Cross-cultural analysis of the WISC-III (pp. 255–263). San Diego: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Ueda, N. (1989). Japanese children’s personal theories of intelligence: A developmental study. Doctoral dissertation, Cambridge: Harvard University.Google Scholar
Wan, M., Li, N., & Jing, Q. (1997). A cross-cultural study on middle school and high school students’ implicit theories of intelligence: Comparison among Han, Tabitan, and Dongxiang Chinese students. [Chinese.] Psychological Development and Education. 2, 1–6.Google Scholar
Watkins, M. W., Glutting, J. J., & Lei, P.-W. (2007). Validity of the full-scale IQ when there is significant variability among WISC-III and WISC-IV factor scores. Applied Neuropsychology, 14(1), 13–20.Google Scholar
White, R. W. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychological Review, 66, 297–333.Google Scholar
Willmann, E., Feldt, K., & Amelang, M. (1997). Prototypical behavior patterns of social intelligences: An intercultural comparison between Chinese and German subjects. International Journal of Psychology, 32(5), 329–346.Google Scholar
Wober, M. (1974). Towards an understanding of the Kigranda concept of intelligence. In Berry, J. W. & Dasen, P. R. (Eds.), Culture and cognition (pp. 261–280). London: Methuen.Google Scholar
Yang, S. -Y., & Sternberg, R. J. (1997a). Conceptions of intelligence in ancient Chinese philosophy. Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 17, 101–119.Google Scholar
Yang, S. -Y., & Sternberg, R. J. (1997b). Taiwanese Chinese people’s conceptions of intelligence, Intelligence, 25, 21–36.Google Scholar
Zhang, H., & Wu, Z. (1994). People’s conceptions of intelligence: A study of Beijing residents’ conceptions of intelligence. [Chinese.] The Science of Psychology, 17(2), 65–69, 81.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×