Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-tf8b9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-29T00:14:44.391Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

20 - Basic Processes of Intelligence

from Part V - Intelligence and Information Processing

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 December 2019

By
Ted Nettelbeck ,
Oliver Zwalf  and
Con Stough
Edited by
Robert J. Sternberg
Robert J. Sternberg
Affiliation:
Cornell University, New York
Get access

Summary

Research on human intelligence from a psychological perspective has mainly focused on higher-order cognitive abilities leading to the development and validation of psychometric measures of intelligence such as the IQ test. Despite the success of this movement, there is a lack of understanding on how intelligence measured by IQ tests develops. As such, recent research has focused on studying the basic underlying processes of intelligence. These measures are often referred to as measures of processing speed and collectively as elementary cognitive tasks (ECTs). In this chapter, we review research on two of the most prominent ECTs found in the intelligence literature: reaction time (RT) and inspection time (IT). We describe these measures and variants of these measures in detail and report on studies examining relationships between RT, IT, and intelligence. We describe theories relating to these measures and attempt to understand whether relationships between RT, IT, and intelligence are best described by top-down (strategic) or bottom-up (basic) processes. We outline exciting new areas using pharmacological and neuroimaging techniques that could contribute to this body of knowledge.

Keywords

processing speedreaction timeinspection time
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence , pp. 471 - 503
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ackerman, P. L., Beier, M. E., & Boyle, M. O. (2005). Working memory and intelligence. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 30–60.Google Scholar
Anderson, M. (1988), Inspection time, information processing and the development of intelligence. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 6, 43–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-835X.1988.tb01079.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, M., Nettelbeck, T., & Barlow, J. (1997). Reaction time measures of speed of processing: Speed of response selection increases with age but speed of stimulus categorization does not. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15, 145–157.Google Scholar
Anderson, M., Reid, C., & Nelson, J. (2001). Developmental changes in inspection time: What a difference a year makes. Intelligence, 29, 475–486.Google Scholar
Baumeister, A. A., & Kellas, G. (1968). Reaction time and mental retardation. In Ellis, N. R. (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation (vol. 3, pp. 163–193). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Biederman, J., Monuteaux, M. C., Doyle, A. E., Seidman, L. J., Wilens, T. E., Ferrero, F., et al. (2004). Impact of executive function deficits and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on academic outcomes in children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(5), 757–766. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.72.5.757Google Scholar
Birren, J. E., & Fisher, L. M. (1992). Aging and slowing of behavior: Consequences for cognition and survival. In Sonderegger, T. B. (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 1991 (pp. 1–37). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Bonney, K. R., Almeida, O. P., Flicker, L., Davies, S., Clarnette, R., Anderson, M., et al. (2006). Inspection time in non-demented older adults with mild cognitive impairment. Neuropsychologia, 44, 1452–1456.Google Scholar
Bors, D. A., Stokes, T. L., Forrin, B., & Hodder, S. L. (1999). Inspection time and intelligence: Practice, strategies and attention. Intelligence, 27, 111–129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brand, C. R. (1996). The g factor: General intelligence and its implications. Chichester, UK: Wiley.Google Scholar
Brand, C. R., & Deary, I. J. (1982). Intelligence and “inspection time.” In Eysenck, H. J. (Ed.), A model for intelligence (pp. 133–148). New York: Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Brewer, N., & Smith, G. A. (1984). How normal and retarded individuals monitor and regulate speed and accuracy of responding in serial choice tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 113, 71–93.Google Scholar
Buehner, M., Krumm, S., Ziegler, M., & Pluecken, T. (2006). Cognitive abilities and their interplay: Reasoning, crystallized intelligence, working memory components, and sustained attention. Journal of Individual Differences, 27, 57–72.Google Scholar
Burns, N. R., & Nettelbeck, T. (2003). Inspection time in the structure of cognitive abilities: Where does IT fit? Intelligence, 31, 237–255.Google Scholar
Burns, N. R., Nettelbeck, T., & Cooper, C. J. (2000). Event-related potential correlates of some human cognitive ability constructs. Personality and Individual Differences, 29, 157–168.Google Scholar
Burns, N. R., Nettelbeck, T., McPherson, J., & Stankov, L. (2007). Perceptual learning on inspection time and motion perception. Journal of General Psychology, 134, 83–100.Google Scholar
Camfield, D. A., Nolidin, K., Savage, K., Timmer, J., Croft, K., Simpson, T., et al. ( 2019). Higher plasma levels of F2-isoprostanes are associated with slower psychomotor speed in healthy older adults. Free Radical Research, 53(4), 377–386. https://doi.org/10.1080/10715762.2018.1513133CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlson, J. S., Jensen, C. M., & Widaman, K. (1983). Reaction time, intelligence and attention. Intelligence, 7, 329–344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carroll, J. B. (1987). Jensen’s mental chronometry: Some comments and questions. In Modgil, S. & Modgil, C. (Eds.), Arthur Jensen: Consensus and controversy (pp. 297–301, 310–311). New York: Falmer.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor analytic studies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cerella, J. (1985). Information processing rates in the elderly. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 67–83.Google Scholar
Chevalier, N., Kurth, S., Doucette, M. R., Wiseheart, M., Deoni, S. C. L., Dean, D. C., et al. (2015). Myelination is associated with processing speed in early childhood: Preliminary insights. PLoS One, 10, e0139897.Google Scholar
Chuderski, A. (2013). When are fluid intelligence and working memory isomorphic and when are they not? Intelligence, 41(4), 244–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2013.04.003Google Scholar
Chuderski, A. (2015). The broad factor of working memory is virtually isomorphic to fluid intelligence tested under time pressure. Personality and Individual Differences, 85, 98–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.04.046Google Scholar
Conway, A. R. A., Cowan, N., Bunting, M. F., Therriault, D. J., & Minkoff, S. R. B. (2002). A latent variable analysis of working memory capacity, short-term memory capacity, processing speed, and general fluid intelligence. Intelligence, 30, 163–183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coyle, T. R. (2003). A review of the worst performance rule: Evidence, theory, and alternative hypotheses. Intelligence, 31, 567–587.Google Scholar
Crawford, J. R., Deary, I. J., Allan, K. M., & Gustafsson, J. E. (1998). Evaluating competing models of the relationship between inspection time and psychometric intelligence. Intelligence, 26, 27–42.Google Scholar
Danthiir, V., Burns, N. R., Nettelbeck, T., Wilson, C., & Wittert, G. (2009). Relationships between age, processing speed, working memory, inhibition and fluid intelligence in older adults. Paper presented at the International Society for the Study of Individual Differences, Chicago, July18–22.Google Scholar
Danthiir, V., Wilhelm, O., & Schacht, A. (2005a). Decision speed in intelligence tasks: Correctly an ability? Psychology Science, 47, 200–229.Google Scholar
Danthiir, V., Wilhelm, O., Schulze, R., & Roberts, R. D. (2005b). Factor structure and validity of paper-and-pencil measures of mental speed: Evidence for a higher-order model? Intelligence, 33, 491–514.Google Scholar
Deary, I. J. (2000). Looking down on human intelligence: From psychophysics to the brain. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Deary, I. J. (2003). Reaction time and psychometric intelligence: Jensen’s contributions. In Nyborg, H. (Ed.), The scientific study of general intelligence: Tribute to Arthur R. Jensen (pp. 53–75). Amsterdam: Pergamon.Google Scholar
Deary, I. J., Allerhand, M., & Der, G. (2009). Smarter in middle age, faster in old age: A cross-lagged panel analysis of reaction time and cognitive ability over 13 years in the West of Scotland Twenty-07 study. Psychology and Aging, 24, 40–47.Google Scholar
Deary, I. J., Bastin, M. E., Pattie, A., Clayden, J. D., Whalley, L. J., Starr, J. M., et al. (2006). White matter integrity and cognition in childhood and old age. Neurology, 66, 505–512.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deary, I. J., Der, G., & Ford, G. (2001a). Reaction times and intelligence differences: A population-based cohort study. Intelligence, 29, 389–399.Google Scholar
Deary, I. J., Hunter, R., Langan, S. J., & Goodwin, G. M. (1991). Inspection time, psychometric intelligence and clinical estimates of cognitive ability in pre-senile Alzheimer’s disease and Korsakoff’s psychosis. Brain, 114, 2543–2554.Google Scholar
Deary, I. J., Leaper, S. A., Murray, A. D., Staff, R. T., & Whalley, L. J. (2003). Cerebral white matter abnormalities and lifetime cognitive change: A 67-year follow-up of the Scottish Mental Survey of 1932. Psychology and Aging, 18, 140–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deary, I. J., Simonotto, E., Marshall, A., Marshall, I., Goddard, N., & Wardlaw, J. M. (2001b). The functional anatomy of inspection time: A pilot fMRI study. Intelligence, 29, 497–510.Google Scholar
Deary, I. J., & Stough, C. (1996). Intelligence and inspection time: Achievements, prospects and problems. American Psychologist, 51, 599–608.Google Scholar
Deary, I. J., & Stough, C. (1997). Looking down on intelligence. American Psychologist, 52, 1148–1150.Google Scholar
Deluca, J., & Kalmar, J. H. (2007). Information processing speed in clinical populations. New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Demetriou, A., Spanoudis, G., & Shayer, M. (2013a). Developmental intelligence: From empirical to hidden constructs. Intelligence, 41(5), 744–749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2013.07.014Google Scholar
Demetriou, A., Spanoudis, G., Shayer, M., Mouyi, A., Kazi, S., & Platsidou, M. (2013b). Cycles in speed-working memory-G relations: Towards a developmental–differential theory of the mind. Intelligence, 41(1), 34–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2012.10.010Google Scholar
Detterman, D. K. (1982). Does g exist? Intelligence, 6, 99–108.Google Scholar
Detterman, D. K. (1987). What does reaction time tell us about intelligence? In Vernon, P. A. (Ed.), Speed of information-processing and intelligence (pp. 177–200). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Doidge, N. (2007). The brain that changes itself. New York: Viking Press.Google Scholar
Duncan, J., Seitz, R. J., Koldny, J., Bor, D., Herzog, H., Ahmed, A., et al. (2000). A neural basis for general intelligence. Science, 289, 457–460.Google Scholar
Edmonds, C. J., Isaacs, E. B., Visscher, P. M., Rogers, M., Lanigan, J., Singhal, A., et al. (2008). Inspection time and cognitive abilities in twins aged 7 to 17 years: Age-related changes, heritability and genetic covariance. Intelligence, 36, 210–255.Google Scholar
Egan, V. (1994). Intelligence, inspection time and cognitive strategies. British Journal of Psychology, 85, 305–316.Google Scholar
Engle, R. W., Tuholski, S. W., Laughlin, J. E., & Conway, A. R. A. (1999). Working memory, short-term memory and general fluid intelligence: A latent variable approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128, 309–331.Google Scholar
Eysenck, H. J. (1987). Speed of information processing, reaction time, and the theory of intelligence. In Vernon, P. A. (Ed.), Speed of information-processing and intelligence (pp. 21–67). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Finkel, D., Reynolds, C. A., McArdle, J. J., & Pedersen, N. L. (2007). Age changes in processing speed as a leading indicator of cognitive aging. Psychology and Aging, 22, 558–568.Google Scholar
Fox, M. C., Roring, R. W., & Mitchum, A. L. (2009). Reversing the speed-IQ correlation: Intra-individual variability and attentional control in the inspection time paradigm. Intelligence, 37, 76–80.Google Scholar
Frearson, W., & Eysenck, H. J. (1986). Intelligence, reaction time (RT) and a new “odd-man-out” RT paradigm. Personality and Individual Differences, 7, 807–817.Google Scholar
Fry, A. F., & Hale, S. (2000). Relationships among processing speed, working memory, and fluid intelligence in children. Biological Psychology, 54, 1–34.Google Scholar
Galloway-Long, H., & Huang-Pollock, C. (2018). Using inspection time and ex-Gaussian parameters of reaction time to predict executive functions in children with ADHD. Intelligence, 69, 186–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2018.06.005Google Scholar
Galton, F. (1883). Inquiries into human faculty and its development. London: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Harper and Row.Google Scholar
Gregory, T., Callaghan, A., Nettelbeck, T., & Wilson, C. (2009). Inspection time predicts individual differences in everyday functioning among elderly adults: Testing discriminant validity. Australasian Journal on Ageing, 28, 87–92.Google Scholar
Gregory, T., Nettelbeck, T., Howard, S., & Wilson, C. (2008). Inspection time: A biomarker for cognitive decline. Intelligence, 36, 664–671.Google Scholar
Gregory, T., Nettelbeck, T., Howard, S., & Wilson, C. (2009a). A test of the cascade model in the elderly. Personality and Individual Differences, 46, 71–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregory, T., Nettelbeck, T., & Wilson, C. (2009b). Within-person changes in inspection time predict memory. Personality and Individual Differences, 46, 741–743.Google Scholar
Grudnik, J. L., & Kranzler, J. H. (2001). Meta-analysis of the relationship between intelligence and inspection time. Intelligence, 29, 523–535.Google Scholar
Gunning-Dixon, F. M., & Raz, N. (2000). The cognitive correlates of white matter abnormalities in normal aging: A quantitative review. Neuropsychology, 14, 224–232.Google Scholar
Hertzog, C., Kramer, A. F., Wilson, R. S., & Lindenberger, U. (2008). Enrichment effects on adult cognitive development: Can the functional capacity of older adults be preserved and enhanced? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9, 1–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hick, W. (1952). On the rate of gain of information. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 4, 11–26.Google Scholar
Horn, J. L., & Noll, J. (1997). Human cognitive capabilities: Gf-Gc theory. In Flanagan, D. P., Genshaft, J. L., & Harrison, P. L. (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues (pp. 53–91). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hunt, E. (1980). Intelligence as an information processing concept. British Journal of Psychology, 71, 449–474.Google Scholar
Hutchison, C. W., Nathan, P. J., Mrazek, L., & Stough, C. (2001). Cholinergic modulation of speed of early information processing: The effect of donepezil on inspection time. Psychopharmacology, 44, 440–442.Google Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1982). Reaction time and psychometric g. In Eysenck, H. J. (Ed.), A model for intelligence (pp. 93–132). New York: Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1987). Individual differences in the Hick paradigm. In Vernon, P. A. (Ed.), Speed of information-processing and intelligence (pp. 101–175). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1998). The g factor: the science of mental ability. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (2006). Clocking the mind: Mental chronometry and individual differences. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Juhel, J. (1991). Relationships between psychometric intelligence and information-processing speed indexes. European Bulletin of Cognitive Psychology, 11, 73–105.Google Scholar
Kail, R. (1991). Developmental change in speed of processing during childhood and adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 490–501.Google Scholar
Kaufman, S. B., DeYoung, C. G., Gray, J. R., Brown, J., & Mackintosh, N. (2009). Associative learning predicts intelligence above and beyond working memory and processing speed. Intelligence. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2009.03.004Google Scholar
Krumm, S., Schmidt-Atzert, L., Michalczyk, K., & Danthiir, V. (2008). Speeded paper-pencil sustained attention and mental speed tests. Journal of Individual Differences, 29, 205–216.Google Scholar
Kyllonen, P. C., & Christal, R. E. (1990). Reasoning ability is (little more than) working memory capacity? Intelligence, 14, 389–433.Google Scholar
Langner, R., & Eickhoff, S. B. (2013). Sustaining attention to simple tasks: A meta-analytic review of the neural mechanisms of vigilant attention. Psychological Bulletin, 139(4), 870–900. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030694Google Scholar
Larson, G. E., & Alderton, D. L. (1990). Reaction time variability and intelligence: A “worst performance” analysis of individual differences. Intelligence, 14, 309–325.Google Scholar
Lehrl, S., & Fischer, B. (1990). A basic information psychological parameter (BIP) for the reconstruction of concepts of intelligence. European Journal of Personality, 4, 259–286.Google Scholar
Longstreth, L. E. (1984). Jensen’s reaction time investigations of intelligence: A critique. Intelligence, 8, 139–160.Google Scholar
Luciano, M., Smith, G. A., Wright, M. J., Geffen, G. M., Geffen, L. B., & Martin, N. G. (2001). On the heritability of inspection time and its covariance with IQ: A twin study. Intelligence, 29, 443–457.Google Scholar
Luciano, M., Wright, M. J., Geffen, G. M., Geffen, L. B., Smith, G. A., & Martin, N. G. (2004). A genetic investigation of the covariation among inspection time, choice reaction time, and IQ subtest scores. Behavior Genetics, 34, 41–50.Google Scholar
Mackintosh, N. J. (1986). The biology of intelligence? British Journal of Psychology, 77, 1–18.Google Scholar
Mackintosh, N. J. (1998). IQ and human intelligence. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Mackintosh, N. J., & Bennett, E. S. (2002). IT, IQ and perceptual speed. Personality and Individual Differences, 32(4), 685–693.Google Scholar
Madden, D. J. (2001). Speed and timing in behavioral processes. In Birren, J. E. & Schaie, K. W. (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging (5th ed., pp. 288–312). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Marr, D. B., & Sternberg, R. J. (1987). The role of mental speed in intelligence: A triarchic perspective. In Vernon, P. A. (Ed.), Speed of information-processing and intelligence (pp. 271–294). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1993). The intelligence of emotional intelligence. Intelligence, 17, 433–442.Google Scholar
McGrew, K. S. (2005). The Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of cognitive abilities: Past, present and future. In Flanagan, D. P. & Harrison, P. L. (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment (2nd ed., pp. 156–182). New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Meiran, N., & Shahar, N. (2018). Working memory involvement in reaction time and its contribution to fluid intelligence: An examination of individual differences in reaction-time distributions. Intelligence, 69, 176–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2018.06.004Google Scholar
Nathan, P. J., & Stough, C. (2001). Inspection time: A neuropsychophysiological test for measuring the functional integrity of the cholinergic system. Medical Hypotheses, 57, 759–760.Google Scholar
Nathan, P. J., Stough, C., & Siteram, G. (2000). Serotonin and information processing: A pharmacodynamic study on the effects of citalopram on cognitive and psychomotor function. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental, 15, 306–307.Google Scholar
Nettelbeck, T. (1985). What reaction times time. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 8, 193–263.Google Scholar
Nettelbeck, T. (1987). Inspection time and intelligence. In Vernon, P. A. (Ed.), Speed of information-processing and intelligence (pp. 295–346). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Nettelbeck, T. (1994). Speediness. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human intelligence. (pp. 1014–1019). New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Nettelbeck, T. (1998). Jensen’s chronometric research: Neither simple nor sufficient but a good place to start. Intelligence, 29, 233–241.Google Scholar
Nettelbeck, T. (2001). Correlation between inspection time and psychometric abilities: A personal interpretation. Intelligence, 29, 459–474.Google Scholar
Nettelbeck, T. (2003). Inspection time and g. In Nyborg, H. (Ed.), The scientific study of general intelligence: Tribute to Arthur R. Jensen (pp. 77–91). Amsterdam: Pergamon.Google Scholar
Nettelbeck, T., Gregory, T., Wilson, C., Burns, N., Danthiir, V., & Wittert, G. (2008). Inspection time: A marker for less successful ageing. Paper presented at the Ninth Annual Conference of the International Society for Intelligence Research (ISIR), Decatur, Georgia, December 11–13.Google Scholar
Nettelbeck, T., & Kirby, N. H. (1983). Measures of timed performance and intelligence. Intelligence, 7, 39–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nettelbeck, T., & Lally, M. (1976). Inspection time and measured intelligence. British Journal of Psychology, 67, 17–22.Google Scholar
Nettelbeck, T., & Vita, P. (1992). Inspection time in two childhood age cohorts: A constant of a developmental function? British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 10, 189–198.Google Scholar
Nettelbeck, T., & Wilson, C. (1985). A cross-sequential analysis of developmental differences in speed of visual information processing. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 40, 1–22.Google Scholar
Nettelbeck, T., & Wilson, C. (1997). Speed of information processing and cognition. In Maclean, W. E. J. (Ed.), Ellis’ handbook of mental deficiency, psychological theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 245–274). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Nettelbeck, T., & Young, R. (1989). Inspection time and intelligence in 6 year old children. Personality and Individual Differences, 10, 605–614.Google Scholar
Neubauer, A. C. (1997). The mental speed account to the assessment of intelligence In Carlson, J. S., Kingma, J., & Tomic, W. (Eds.), Advances in cognition and educational practice: Reflections on the concept of intelligence (vol. 4, pp. 149–173). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.Google Scholar
Neubauer, A. C., & Bucik, V. (1996). The mental speed-IQ relationship: Unitary or modular? Intelligence, 22, 23–48.Google Scholar
Oberauer, K., Süβ, H.-M., Wilhelm, O., & Wittmann, W. W. (2008). Which working memory functions predict intelligence? Intelligence, 36(6), 641–652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2008.01.007Google Scholar
Oberauer, K., Wilhelm, O., Schulze, R., & Süß, H.-M. (2005). Working memory and intelligence – their correlation and their relation: Comment on Ackerman, Beier, and Boyle (2005). Psychological Bulletin, 131(1), 61–65. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.1.61Google Scholar
O’Connor, T. A., & Burns, N. R. (2003). Inspection time and general speed of processing. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 713–724.Google Scholar
Olsson, H., Björkman, C., Haag, K., & Juslin, P. (1998). Auditory inspection time: On the importance of selecting the appropriate sensory continuum. Personality and Individual Differences, 25, 627–634.Google Scholar
Parker, D. M., Crawford, J. R., & Stephen, E. (1999). Auditory inspection time and intelligence: A new spatial localization task. Intelligence, 27, 131–139.Google Scholar
Petrill, S. A., Luo, D., Thompson, L. A., & Detterman, D. K. (2001). Inspection time and the relationship among elementary cognitive tasks, general intelligence, and specific cognitive abilities. Intelligence, 29, 487–496.Google Scholar
Posner, M. I. (1978). Chronometric explorations of mind. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Posthuma, D., de Geus, E. J. C., & Boomsma, D. I. (2001). Perceptual speed and IQ are associated through common genetic factors Behavior Genetics, 31, 593–602.Google Scholar
Rabbitt, P., Scott, M., Lunn, M., Thacker, N., Lowe, C., Pedleton, N., et al. (2007). White matter lesions account for all age-related declines in speed but not in intelligence. Neuropsychology, 21, 363–370.Google Scholar
Ratcliff, R., & Smith, P. L. (2004). A comparison of sequential sampling models for two-choice reaction time. Psychological Review, 111, 333–367.Google Scholar
Reed, T. E., & Jensen, A. R. (1992). Conduction velocity in a brain nerve pathway of normal adults correlates with intelligence level. Intelligence, 16, 259–272.Google Scholar
Reed, T. E., & Jensen, A. R. (1993). Choice reaction time and visual pathway nerve conduction velocity both correlate with intelligence but appear not to correlate with each other: Implications for information processing. Intelligence, 17, 191–203.Google Scholar
Reed, T. E., Vernon, P. A., & Johnson, A. M. (2004). Confirmation of correlation between brain nerve conduction velocity and intelligence level in normal adults. Intelligence, 32, 563–572.Google Scholar
Ritchie, S. J., Bates, T. C., Der, G., Starr, J. M., & Deary, I. J. (2013). Education is associated with higher later life IQ scores, but not with faster cognitive processing speed. Psychology and Aging, 28(2), 515–521. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030820Google Scholar
Roberts, R. D., & Stankov, L. (1999). Individual differences in speed of mental processing and human cognitive abilities: Toward a taxonomic model. Learning and Individual Differences, 11, 1–120.Google Scholar
Rockstroh, S., & Schweizer, K. (2004). The effect of retest practice on the speed-ability relationship. European Psychologist, 9, 24–31.Google Scholar
Salthouse, T. A. (1996). The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychological Review, 103, 403–428.Google Scholar
Salthouse, T. A. (2006). Mental exercise and mental aging. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 68–87.Google Scholar
Schafer, E. P. W. (1985). Neural adaptability: A biological determinant of g factor intelligence. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 8, 240–241.Google Scholar
Schaie, K. W. (2005). Developmental influences on adult intelligence. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Schmiedek, F., Oberauer, K., Wilhelm, O., Süß, H.-M., & Wittmann, W. W. (2007). Individual differences in components of reaction time distributions and their relations to working memory and intelligence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136, 414–429.Google Scholar
Schweizer, K., Zimmermann, P., & Koch, W. (2000). Sustained attention, intelligence, and the crucial role of perceptual processes. Learning and Individual Differences, 12, 271–287.Google Scholar
Sculthorpe, L. D., Stelmack, R. M., & Campbell, K. B. (2009). Mental ability and the effect of pattern violation discrimination on P300 and mismatch negativity. Intelligence, 37, 405–411.Google Scholar
Sheppard, L. D., & Vernon, P. A. (2008). Intelligence and speed of information-processing: A review of 50 years of research. Personality and Individual Differences, 44, 535–551.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, G. A., & Carew, M. (1987). Decision time unmasked: Individuals adopt different strategies. Australian Journal of Psychology, 39, 339–351.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1977). Intelligence, information processing, and analogical reasoning: The componential analysis of human abilities. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (2003). Wisdom, intelligence and creativity synthesized. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, S. (1975). Memory scanning: New findings and current controversies. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 27, 1–32.Google Scholar
Stough, C., Bates, T., Mangan, G. L., & Colrain, I. (2001a). Inspection time and intelligence: Further attempts at reducing the apparent motion strategy. Intelligence, 29, 219–230.Google Scholar
Stough, C., Nettelbeck, T., Cooper, C., & Bates, T. (1995). Strategy use in Jensen’s RT Paradigm: Relationships to intelligence? Australian Journal of Psychology, 47, 61–65.Google Scholar
Stough, C., Thompson, J. C., Bates, T. C., & Nathan, P. J. (2001b). Examining neurochemical determinants of inspection time: Development of a biological model. Intelligence, 29, 511–522.Google Scholar
Strachan, M. W. J., Deary, I. J., Ewing, F. M. E., Ferguson, S. S. C., Young, M. J., & Frier, B. M. (2001). Acute hypoglycemia impairs the functioning of the central but not peripheral nervous system. Physiology and Behavior, 72, 83–92.Google Scholar
Stroud, J. M. (1956). The fine structure of psychological time. In Quastler, H. (Ed.), Information theory in psychology. Glencoe, UK: The Free Press.Google Scholar
Thompson, J. C., Stough, C., Nathan, P. J., Ames, D., & Ritchie, C. (2000). Effects of the nicotinic antagonist mecamylamine on inspection time. Psychopharmacology, 150(1), 117–119.Google Scholar
Turvey, M. T. (1973). On peripheral and central processes in vision: Inferences from an information-processing analysis of masking with patterned stimuli. Psychological Review, 80, 1–52.Google Scholar
Unsworth, N. (2010). Interference control, working memory capacity, and cognitive abilities: A latent variable analysis. Intelligence, 38(2), 255–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2009.12.003Google Scholar
Verhaeghen, P. (2013). The elements of cognitive aging: Meta-analyses of age-related differences in processing speed and their consequences. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Vernon, P. A. (1987). New developments in reaction time research. In Vernon, P. A. (Ed.), Speed of information-processing and intelligence (pp. 1–20). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Vernon, P. A., & Mori, M. (1992). Intelligence, reaction times, and peripheral nerve conduction velocity. Intelligence, 16, 273–288.Google Scholar
Vernon, P. A., Wickett, J. C., Bazana, P. C., & Stelmack, R. M. (2000). The neuropsychology and psychophysiology of human intelligence. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Handbook of intelligence. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Vickers, D., Nettelbeck, T., & Willson, R. J. (1972). Perceptual indices of performance: The measurement of “inspection time” and “noise” in the visual system. Perception, 1, 263–295.Google Scholar
Welford, A. T. (1968). Fundamentals of skill. London: Methuen.Google Scholar
Zajac, I. T., & Burns, N. R. (2007). Measuring auditory inspection time in primary school children. Journal of Individual Differences, 28, 45–52.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×