Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-24T12:24:37.616Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

11 - Germanic Heritage Varieties in the Americas

Social and Linguistic Perspectives

from Part I - Heritage Languages around the World

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 November 2021

By
Janne Bondi Johannessen  and
Joseph Salmons
Edited by
Silvina Montrul  and
Maria Polinsky
Silvina Montrul
Affiliation:
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
Maria Polinsky
Affiliation:
University of Maryland, College Park
Get access

Summary

Continental West Germanic and North Germanic languages have been spoken in the Americas for several hundred years, and many are alive as heritage languages today, though often used only by elderly speakers. This chapter examines these languages from several perspectives. First, we look at social and historical contexts of bilingualism. Second, we describe the varieties used, e.g., the extent to which people knew a standard language, along with associated language attitudes and ideologies. Third, we look at key structural properties of Germanic heritage languages with examples from phonetics and phonology, morphology, syntax, pragmatics, and the lexicon, revealing parallels in development and change across languages. Finally, we note some patterns and language maintenance and shift.

Keywords

Continental West Germanic languagesNorth Germanic languagesstandard languagekoinelanguage ideologyphonetics and phonologymorphologysyntaxpragmaticslexiconlanguage maintenancelanguage shift
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Heritage Languages and Linguistics , pp. 252 - 276
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abramac, Gabi. 2014. Between Two Worlds: Language and Culture in the Ultra-Orthodox Jewish Communities in New York City and in Upstate New York. Studii de Ştiinţăşicultură 10, 13–20.Google Scholar
Abramac, Gabi. 2017. Language Choices and Language Ideologies among Hasidic Jews in New York. Paper presented at the 8th Annual Workshop on Immigrant Languages in the Americas (WILA8). University of Copenhagen, October 12–14, 2017.Google Scholar
Anderson, Vicki M. 2014. Bidialectalism: An Unexpected Development in the Obsolescence of Pennsylvania Dutchified English. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Annear, Lucas and Speth, Kristin. 2015. Maintaining a Multilingual Repertoire: Lexical Change in American Norwegian. In Johannessen, Janne Bondi and Salmons, Joseph (eds.), Germanic Heritage Languages in North America: Acquisition, Attrition and Change. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 201–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnbjörnsdóttir, Birna. 2015. Reexamining Icelandic as a Heritage Language in North America. In Johannessen, Janne Bondi and Salmons, Joseph (eds.), Germanic Heritage Languages in North America: Acquisition, Attrition and Change. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 72–93.Google Scholar
Arnbjörnsdóttir, Birna, Thráinsson, Höskuldr, and Nowenstein, Iris. 2018. V2 and V3 Orders in North American Icelandic. Journal of Language Contact 11, 379–412.Google Scholar
Barðdal, Jóhanna and Kulikov, Leonid. 2008. Case in Decline. In Malchukov, A. and Spencer, A. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Case. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 470–478.Google Scholar
Benmamoun, Elabbas, Montrul, Silvina, and Polinsky, Maria. 2013a. Keynote Article. Heritage Languages and Their Speakers: Opportunities and Challenges for Linguistics. Theoretical Linguistics 39, 129–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benmamoun, Elabbas, Montrul, Silvina, and Polinsky, Maria. 2013b. Defining an “Ideal” Heritage Speaker: Theoretical and Methodological Challenges. Reply to Peer Commentaries. Theoretical Linguistics 39, 259–294.Google Scholar
Bousquette, Joshua. 2020. From Bidialectal to Bilingual: Oblique Case Marking in Lester W. J. “Smoky” Seifert’s 1946–1949 Wisconsin German Recordings. American Speech 95, 486–532.Google Scholar
Brown, Joshua R. 2018. Language Maintenance among the Hutterites. Yearbook of German-American Studies 52, 1–18.Google Scholar
Brown, Joshua R. 2019. Civil War Writings of the Pennsylvania Dutch. Journal of Historical Sociolinguistics, special issues on Heritage Language Ego-Documents: From Home, from Away, and from Below, ed. Brown, Joshua R..Google Scholar
Brown, Joshua R. (ed.) Forthcoming. Verticalization: A Model for Language Shift. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Brown, Joshua R. and Bousquette, Joshua (eds.) 2018. Heritage and Immigrant Languages in the Americas: Sociolinguistic Approaches, special issue of the Journal of Language Contact 11(2) 201–371.Google Scholar
Brown, Joshua R. and Biers, Kelly (eds.) 2019. Selected Proceedings of the 9th Annual Workshop on Immigrant Languages in the Americas (WILA 9). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press. www.cascadilla.com/wila.htmlGoogle Scholar
Brown, Joshua R. and Hietpas, Rachyl. 2019. Postvernacular Dutch in Wisconsin. In Brown, Joshua R. and Biers, Kelly (eds.), Selected Proceedings of the 9th Annual Workshop on Immigrant Languages in the Americas (WILA 9). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.Google Scholar
Coetzee, Andries W., García-Amaya, Lorenzo, Henriksen, Nicholas, and Wissing, Daan. 2015. Bilingual speech rhythm: Spanish-Afrikaans in Patagonia. International Congress of Phonetic Sciences.Google Scholar
Crawford, James (ed.) 1992. Language Loyalties: A Source Book on the Official English Controversy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Crawford, James. 2000. At War with Diversity: US Language Policy in an Age of Anxiety. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Duus, Olaus Fredrik. 1855–1858 [1958]. Frontier Parsonage: The Letters of Olaus Fredrik Duus. Norwegian Pastor in Wisconsin, 1855–1858. NAHA, Northfield 1947. In Blegen, Theodore C. (ed.), Amerikabrev. Oslo: H. Aschehoug & Co.Google Scholar
Ehresmann, Todd and Bousquette, Joshua. 2015. Phonological Non-Integration of Lexical Borrowings in Wisconsin West Frisian. In Johannessen, Janne Bondi and Salmons, Joseph (eds.), Germanic Heritage Languages in North America: Acquisition, Attrition and Change. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 234–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eide, Kristin Melum and Hjelde, Arnstein. 2015a. Verb Second and Finiteness Morphology in Norwegian Heritage Language of the American Midwest. In Page, Richard and Putnam, Michael T. (eds.), Moribund Germanic Heritage Languages in North America: Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Findings. Leiden: Brill, 64–101.Google Scholar
Eide, Kristin Melum and Hjelde, Arnstein. 2015b. Borrowing Modal Elements into American Norwegian: The Case of Suppose(d). In Johannessen, Janne Bondi and Salmons, Joseph (eds.), Germanic Heritage Languages in North America: Acquisition, Attrition and Change. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 256–282.Google Scholar
Eide, Kristin Melum and Hjelde, Arnstein. 2018. Om verbplassering og verbmorfologi i amerikanorsk. Maal og Minne 110, 25–69.Google Scholar
Flaten, Nils. 1901. Notes on the American-Norwegian with Vocabulary. Dialect Notes 2, 115–126.Google Scholar
Flom, George. T. 1901. English Elements in Norse Dialects of Utica, Wisconsin. Dialect Notes 2, 1900–1904.Google Scholar
Flom, George. T. 1926. English Loanwords in American Norwegian: As spoken in the Koshkonong Settlement, Wisconsin. American Speech 1, 541–558.Google Scholar
Fuller, Janet M. 2001. The Principle of Pragmatic Detachability in Borrowing: English-Origin Discourse Markers in Pennsylvania German. Linguistics 39, 351–370.Google Scholar
Hasselmo, Nils. 1974. Amerikasvenska: En bok om språkutvecklingen i Svensk-Amerika. (Skrifter utg. av Svenska språknämnden 51). Lund: Esselte.Google Scholar
Haugen, Einar. 1950. The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing. Language 26, 210–231.Google Scholar
Haugen, Einar. 1953. The Norwegian Language in America. 2 vols. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Heegård Petersen, Jan and Kühl, Karoline. 2017. Argentinadansk: Semantiske, syntaktiske og morfologiske forskelle til rigsdansk. Nydanske Sprogstudier NyS 52–53, 231–258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heegård Petersen, Jan and Kühl, Karoline (eds.) 2018. Selected Proceedings of the 8th Workshop on Immigrant Languages in the Americas (WILA 8). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.Google Scholar
Hjelde, Arnstein. 1992. Trøndsk talemål i Amerika. Trondheim: Tapir.Google Scholar
Hjelde, Arnstein. 1996. Some Phonological Changes in a Norwegian Dialect in America. In Ureland, Sture (ed.), Language Contact across the North Atlantic: Proceedings of the Working Groups Held at the University College, Galway (Ireland), 1992 and the University of Göteborg (Sweden). Berlin: de Gruyter, 283–295.Google Scholar
Hjelde, Arnstein. 2015. Changes in a Norwegian Dialect in America. In Johannessen, Janne Bondi and Salmons, Joseph (eds.), Germanic Heritage Languages in North America: Acquisition, Attrition and Change. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 283–298.Google Scholar
Hjelde, Arnstein and Johannessen, Janne Bondi. 2017. Amerikanorsk: Orda vitner om kontakt mellom folk. In Joranger, Terje Mikael Hasle (ed.), Norwegian-American Essays 2017. Oslo: Novus, 257–282.Google Scholar
Hoffman, Angela and Kytö, Merja. 2018. Heritage Swedish, English, and Textual Space in Rural Communities of Practice. In Heegård Petersen, Jan and Kühl, Karoline (eds.), Selected Proceedings of the 8th Workshop on Immigrant Languages in the Americas (WILA 8). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project, 44–54.Google Scholar
Holmberg, Anders and Platzack, Christer. 1995. The Role of Inflection in Scandinavian Syntax. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hopp, Holger and Putnam, Michael T.. 2015. Restructuring in Heritage Grammar: Word Order Variation in Heritage German. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 5(2), 180–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johannessen, Janne Bondi. 2015. Attrition in an American Norwegian Heritage Language Speaker. In Johannessen, Janne Bondi and Salmons, Joseph (eds.), Germanic Heritage Languages in North America: Acquisition, Attrition and Change. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 46–71.Google Scholar
Johannessen, Janne Bondi. 2018. Factors of Variation, Maintenance and Change in Scandinavian Heritage Languages. In Kasstan, Jonathan, Auer, Anita, and Salmons, Joe (eds.), Special Issue on ‘Heritage-Language Speakers: Theoretical and Empirical Challenges on Sociolinguistic Attitudes and Prestige’, International Journal of Bilingualism 22, 447–465.Google Scholar
Johannessen, Janne Bondi and Salmons, Joseph (eds.) 2015. Germanic Heritage Languages in North America: Acquisition, Attrition and Change. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Johannessen, Janne Bondi and Michael, Putnam. 2020. Heritage Germanic Languages in North America. In Putnam, Michael and Page, Richard (eds.), Handbook of Germanic Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 783–806.Google Scholar
Johannessen, Janne Bondi and Laake, Signe. 2017. Norwegian in the American Midwest: A Common Dialect? Journal of Language Contact 10, 1.Google Scholar
Julien, Marit. 2008. Så vanleg at det kan ikkje avfeiast: om V2 i innføydde setningar. In Johannessen, Janne Bondi and Hagen, Kristin (eds.), Språk i Oslo. Ny forskning om talespråk. Novus Forlag. Online https://portal.research.lu.se/portal/en/publications/saa-vanleg-at-det-kan-ikkje-avfeiast-om-v2-i-innfoeydde-setningar(90e9f8e1-8829-4336-8e35-7ea64a42be2f).htmlGoogle Scholar
Julien, Marit. 2015. The Force of V2 Revisited. Journal of Comparative Germanic Linguistics 18, 139–181.Google Scholar
Kahan Newman, Zelda. 2015. Discourse Markers in the Narratives of New York Hasidim. In Johannessen, Janne Bondi and Salmons, Joseph (eds.), Germanic Heritage Languages in North America: Acquisition, Attrition and Change. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 178–197.Google Scholar
Karstadt, Angela. 2003. Tracking Swedish-American English: A Longitudinal Study of Linguistic Variation and Identity. Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis.Google Scholar
Kellogg, Louise Phelps. 1918. The Bennett Law in Wisconsin. Wisconsin Magazine of History 2, 3–25.Google Scholar
Kerswill, Paul. 2002. Koineization and Accommodation. In Chambers, J. K., Trudgill, Peter, and Schilling-Estes, Natalie (eds.), The Handbook of Language Variation and Change. Oxford: Blackwell, 669–702.Google Scholar
Kerswill, Paul and Trudgill, Peter. 2005. The Birth of New Dialects. In Auer, Peter, Hinskens, Frans, and Kerswill, Paul (eds.), Dialect Change: Convergence and Divergence in European Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 196–220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kjær, Iver and Larsen, Mogens Baumann. 1987. A Study of the Vocabulary in an American-Danish Community. In Jørgensen, Steffen E., Scheving, Lars, and Stilling, Niels Peter (eds.), From Scandinavia to America: Proceedings of a Conference Held at Gl. Holtegaard. Odense: Odense University Press, 265–266.Google Scholar
Klosinski, Robert. 2019. Partial Phonetic Convergence in Misionero German-Portuguese Bilinguals. In Brown, Joshua R. and Biers, Kelly (eds.), Selected Proceedings of the 9th Annual Workshop on Immigrant Languages in the Americas (WILA 9). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.Google Scholar
Koerner, Christian. 1890. Das Bennett-Gesetz und die deutschen protestantischen Gemeindeschulen in Wisconsin. Milwaukee: Germania.Google Scholar
Kühl, Karoline and Petersen, Jan Heegård. 2016. Ledstillingsvariation i amerikadanske hovedsætninger med topikalisering. Ny forskning i grammatik 23, 161–176.Google Scholar
Kühl, Karoline and Petersen, Jan Heegård. 2018. Word Order in American Danish Declaratives with a Non-Subject Initial Constituent. Journal of Language Contact 11, 413–440.Google Scholar
Kvalsten, Louis. 1931. Article in Reform. February 5. 46(6), 3. Waldemar Ager Association. The Ager Museum Collection: Reform. [Online database]. https://rescarta.apps.uwec.edu/Ager-Web/jsp/RcWebBrowse.jspGoogle Scholar
Larsson, Ida and Johannessen, Janne Bondi. 2015a. Embedded Word Order in Heritage Scandinavian. In Hilpert, Martin, Östman, Jan-Ola, Mertzlufft, Christine, Riessler, Michael, and Duke, Janet (eds.), New Trends in Nordic and General Linguistics. Berlin: De Gruyter, 239–266.Google Scholar
Larsson, Ida and Johannessen, Janne Bondi. 2015b. Incomplete Acquisition and Verb Placement in Heritage Scandinavian. In Page, Richard S. and Putnam, Michael T. (eds.), Moribund Germanic Heritage Languages in North America: Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Findings. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 153–189.Google Scholar
Larsson, Ida, Tingsell, Sofia, and Andréasson, Maia. 2015. Variation and Change in American Swedish. In Johannessen, Janne Bondi and Salmons, Joseph (eds.), Germanic Heritage Languages in North America: Acquisition, Attrition and Change. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 359–388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levine, Glenn S. 2015. Incomplete L1 Acquisition in the Immigrant Situation: Yiddish in the United States. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Lippi-Green, Rosina. 2012. English with an Accent: Language, Ideology, and Discrimination in the United States. 2nd ed. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Litty, Samantha. 2017. We Talk German Now Yet: The Sociolinguistic Development of Voice Onset Time & Final Obstruent Devoicing in Wisconsin German & English varieties, 1863–2013. PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin–Madison.Google Scholar
Louden, Mark. 2016. Pennsylvania Dutch: The Story of an American Language. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Lykke, Alexander K. 2018. The Relation between Finiteness Morphology and Verb-Second: An Empirical Study of Heritage Norwegian. In Heegård Petersen, Jan and Kühl, Karoline (eds.), Selected Proceedings of the 8th Workshop on Immigrant Languages in the Americas (WILA 8). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project, 71–79.Google Scholar
Macaulay, Monica and Salmons, Joseph. 2019. Differential Invisibilization and Its Aftermath: Menominee and German in Wisconsin. Taal en Tongval 71(2). 187–207.Google Scholar
Matras, Yaron. 2009. Language Contact. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Milroy, James. 2014. Sociolinguistics and Ideologies in Language History. Hernández-Campoy, Juan Manuel and Conde-Silvestre, Juan Camilo (eds.), The Handbook of Historical Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Blackwell, 571–584.Google Scholar
Moen, Per. 1988. The English Pronunciation of Norwegian-Americans in Four Midwestern States. American Studies in Scandinavia 20, 105–121.Google Scholar
Moquin, Laura. 2019. Language and Morality in Norwegian-American Newspapers: Reform in Eau Claire, WI. In Brown, Joshua R. and Biers, Kelly (eds.), Selected Proceedings of the 9th Annual Workshop on Immigrant Languages in the Americas (WILA 9). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press, 64–71.Google Scholar
Natvig, David. 2016. Heritage Norwegian Vowel Phonology and English Dialect Formation. Heritage Language Journal 13, 245–274.Google Scholar
Natvig, David. 2017. A Model of Underspecified Recognition for Phonological Integrations: English Loanwords in American Norwegian. Journal of Language Contact 10(1), 22–55.Google Scholar
Natvig, David. 2019. Levels of Representation in Phonetic and Phonological Contact. In Darquennes, Jeroen, Vandenbussche, Wim, and Salmons, Joseph (eds.), Contact Linguistics. Vol. 1. Berlin: de Gruyter Handbooks, 88–99.Google Scholar
Natvig, David. Forthcoming. ‘The Great Change’ and the Shift from Norwegian to English in Ulen, Minnesota. In Brown, Joshua R. (ed.), Verticalization: A Model for Language Shift. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Natvig, David and Salmons, Joseph. 2020. Fully Accepting Variation in (Pre) History: The Pervasive Heterogeneity of Germanic Rhotics. In Sutcliffe, Patricia C. (ed.), The Polymath Intellectual: A Festschrift in Honor of Professor Robert D. King. Dripping Springs, TX: Agarita Press, 81–101.Google Scholar
Nützel, Daniel. 2009. The East Franconian Dialect of Haysville, Indiana: A Study in Language Death / Die ostfränkische Mundart von Haysville, Indiana: Eine Untersuchung mit ausgewählten morphologischen und syntaktischen Phänomenen. Regensburger Dialektforum, vol. 15. Regensburg: Edition Vulpes.Google Scholar
Nützel, Daniel and Salmons, Joseph. 2011. Structural Stability and Change in Language Contact: Evidence from American German. Language and Linguistics Compass 5, 705–717.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olesch, Reinhold. 1970. The West Slavic Languages in Texas with Special Regard to Sorbian in Serbin, Lee County. In Gilbert, Glenn (ed.), Texas Studies in Bilingualism. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 151–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Neil, Wayne. 1978. The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change. Orbis 27, 248–286.Google Scholar
Otheguy, Ricardo and Zentella, Ana Celia. 2011. Spanish in New York: Language Contact, Dialectal Leveling, and Structural Continuity. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Page, B. Richard and Brown, Joshua R.. 2006. From V2 to SVO? A Quantitative Analysis of Word Order in Pennsylvania German. Paper presented at the Germanic Linguistics Annual Conference 12, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.Google Scholar
Page, Richard and Putnam, Michael T. (eds.) 2015. Moribund Germanic Heritage Languages in North America: Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Findings. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Peterson, Elizabeth. 2018. Coffee and Danish in Sanpete County, Utah: An Exploration of Food Rituals and Language Shift. In Heegård Petersen, Jan and Kühl, Karoline (eds.), Selected Proceedings of the 8th Workshop on Immigrant Languages in the Americas (WILA 8). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project, 80–87.Google Scholar
Pichler, Heike, Wagner, Suzanne Evans, and Hesson, Ashley. 2018. Old‐age Language Variation and Change: Confronting Variationist Ageism. Language and Linguistics Compass 12(6): 1–22.Google Scholar
Pierce, Marc, Boas, Hans, and Roesch, Karen. 2015. The History of Front Rounded Vowels in New Braunfels German. In Johannessen, Janne Bondi and Salmons, Joseph (eds.), Germanic Heritage Languages in North America: Acquisition, Attrition and Change. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 117–131.Google Scholar
Polinsky, Maria. 2018. Heritage Languages and Their Speakers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Putnam, Michael (ed.) 2011. Studies on German Language Islands. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Putnam, Michael and Page, Richard (eds.) 2020. Handbook of Germanic Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rødvand, Linn Iren Sjånes. 2017. Empirical Investigations of Grammatical Gender in American Heritage Norwegian. MA thesis, Oslo: University of Oslo, Department of Linguistics and Scandinavian Studies.Google Scholar
Rødvand, Linn Iren Sjånes. 2018. Systematic Variation in the Gender System in American Norwegian. In Heegård Petersen, Jan and Kühl, Karoline (eds.), Selected Proceedings of the 8th Workshop on Immigrant Languages in the Americas (WILA 8). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project, 89–95.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, Peter. 2005. Dialect Convergence in the German Language Islands (Sprachinseln). In Auer, P., Hinskens, F., and Kerswill, P. (eds.), Dialect Change: Convergence and Divergence in European Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 221–235.Google Scholar
Salmons, Joseph. 1990. Bilingual Discourse Marking: Codeswitching, Borrowing and Convergence in Some German-American Dialects. Linguistics 28, 453–480.Google Scholar
Salmons, Joseph. 1994. Naturalness and Morphological Change in Texas German. In Berend, N. and Mattheier, K. J. (eds.), Sprachinselforschung: Eine Gedenkschrift für Hugo Jedig. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 59–72.Google Scholar
Salmons, Joseph. 2017. Keineswegs Feinde der englischen Sprache: Deutsch, Englisch und Schulpolitik in Wisconsin. Muttersprache, special issue, “Zur Soziolinguistik regionaler Mehrsprachigkeit im deutschsprachigen Raum” (ed.) Langer, Nils. 2017(4), 310–323.Google Scholar
Salmons, Joseph and Purnell, Thomas. 2020. Language Contact and the Development of American English. In Hickey, Raymond (ed.), The Handbook of Language Contact. Oxford: Blackwell, 2nd ed., 361–383.Google Scholar
Sanz-Sánchez, Israel. 2013. Dialect Contact as the Cause for Dialect Change: Evidence from a Phonemic Merger in Colonial New Mexican Spanish. Diachronica 30, 61–94.Google Scholar
Schmid, Monika. 2002. First Language Attrition, Use and Maintenance: The Case of German Jews in Anglophone Countries. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Sewell, Alyson and Salmons, Joseph. 2014. How Far-Reaching Are the Effects of Contact? Parasitic Gapping in Wisconsin German and English. In Nicolai, Robert (ed.), Questioning Language Contact: Limits of Contact, Contact at its Limits. Leiden: Brill, 217–251.Google Scholar
Shandler, Jeffrey. 2006. Adventures in Yiddishland: Postvernacular Language and Culture. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Siemens, Heinrich. 2012. Plautdietsch: Grammatik Geschichte Perspektiven. Bonn: Tweeback.Google Scholar
Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove. 2000. Linguistic Genocide in Education – or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights? Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
van Baal, Yvonne. 2018. Compositional Definiteness in Heritage Norwegian: Production Studied in a Translation Experiment. In Heegård Petersen, Jan and Kühl, Karoline (eds.), Selected Proceedings of the 8th Workshop on Immigrant Languages in the Americas (WILA 8). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project, 9–17.Google Scholar
van Baal, Yvonne. 2019. Compositional Definiteness in American Heritage Norwegian. PhD thesis, Oslo: University of Oslo, Department of Linguistics and Scandinavian Studies.Google Scholar
Vikner, Sten. 1995. Verb Movement and Expletive Subjects in the Germanic Languages. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Webber, Philip E. 1988. Pella Dutch: The Portrait of a Language and Its Use in One of Iowa’s Ethnic Communities. Ames: Iowa State University Press.Google Scholar
Westergaard, Marit and Lohndal, Terje. 2019. Verb Second Word Order in Norwegian Heritage Language: Syntax and Pragmatics. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar
Wilkerson, Miranda and Salmons, Joseph. 2008. “Good Old Immigrants of Yesteryear” Who Didn’t Learn English: Germans in Wisconsin. American Speech 83, 259–283.Google Scholar
Wilkerson, Miranda and Salmons, Joseph. 2012. Linguistic Marginalities: Becoming American without Learning English. Journal of Transnational American Studies 4(2) acgcc_jtas_7115. www.escholarship.org/uc/item/5vn092kk.Google Scholar
Wilkerson, Miranda and Salmons, Joseph. 2019. Leaving Their Mark: How Wisconsin Came to Sound German. In Hickey, Raymond (ed.), English in the German-speaking World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 362–384.Google Scholar
Yager, Lisa, Hellmold, Nora, Joo, Hyoun-A, Putnam, Michael T., Rossi, Eleonora, Stafford, Catherine, and Salmons, Joseph. 2015. New Structural Patterns in Moribund Grammar: Case Marking in Heritage German. Frontiers in Psychology 6. http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01716/fullGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×