Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dlnhk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T16:44:08.645Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

2.1 - Current Understandings of Sex-Based Harassment and Stalking Perpetration

from Part II - Psychology and Criminal Behaviour

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 December 2021

By
Thomas E. Page  and
Adrian J. Scott
Edited by
Jennifer M. Brown  and
Miranda A. H. Horvath
Jennifer M. Brown
Affiliation:
London School of Economics and Political Science
Miranda A. H. Horvath
Affiliation:
University of Suffolk
Get access

Summary

Sex-based harassment and stalking are highly prevalent forms of interpersonal aggression that often result in an array of detrimental and severe impacts for victims. In this chapter, we examine some of the common challenges associated with defining and legislating against sex-based harassment and stalking, as well as considering existing classifications of behaviour and perpetrator motivations. In doing so, our aim is to highlight the complex nature of these forms of interpersonal aggression and the difficulties associated with ascertaining boundaries between ‘reasonable’ and ‘unreasonable’ behaviour. We proceed to discuss the importance of appropriately targeted evidence-based educational campaigns to increase public awareness and understanding regarding the reality of sex-based harassment and stalking. Our conclusion is that increased education will enable greater recognition of the diverse behaviours that constitute sex-based harassment and stalking, so that people are better able to identify both their own and others’ victimisation experiences.

Keywords

Sex-based HarassmentStalkingPerpetrationBehaviourMotivations
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Forensic Psychology , pp. 167 - 194
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alexy, E.M., Burgess, A.W., Baker, T., & Smoyak, S.A. (2005). Perceptions of cyberstalking among college students. Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 5, 279–289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, S.C. (1993). Anti-stalking laws: Will they curb the erotomaniac’s obsessive pursuit? Law and Psychology Review, 17, 171–191.Google Scholar
Avina, C., & O’Donohue, W. (2002). Sexual harassment and PTSD: Is sexual harassment diagnosable trauma? Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15, 69–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barak, A. (2005). Sexual harassment on the Internet. Social Science Computer Review, 23, 77–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Begany, J.J., & Milburn, M.A. (2002). Psychological predictors of sexual harassment: Authoritarianism, hostile sexism, and rape myths. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 3, 119–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, M.P., Quick, J.C., & Cycyota, C.S. (2002). Assessment and prevention of sexual harassment of employees: An applied guide to creating healthy organizations. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 10, 160–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bendixen, M., & Kennair, L.E.O. (2017). Advances in the understanding of same-sex and opposite-sex sexual harassment. Evolution and Human Behavior, 38, 583–591.Google Scholar
Berdahl, J.L. (2007a). The sexual harassment of uppity women. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 425–437.Google Scholar
Berdahl, J.L. (2007b). Harassment based on sex: Protecting social status in the context of gender hierarchy. Academy of Management Review, 32, 641–658.Google Scholar
Berdahl, J.L., & Moore, C. (2006). Workplace harassment: Double jeopardy for minority women. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 426–436.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berdahl, J.L., Magley, V.J., & Waldo, C.R. (1996). The sexual harassment of men? Exploring the concept with theory and data. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 527–547.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blaauw, E., Winkel, F.W., Arensman, E., Sheridan, L., & Freeve, A. (2002). The toll of stalking: The relationship between features of stalking and psychopathology of victims. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17, 50–63.Google Scholar
Boehnlein, T., Kretschmar, J., Regoeczi, W., & Smialek, J. (2020). Responding to stalking victims: Perceptions, barriers, and directions for future research. Journal of Family Violence. Advance online publication.Google Scholar
Boon, J.C.W., & Sheridan, L. (2001). Stalker typologies: A law enforcement perspective. Journal of Threat Assessment, 1, 75–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brewster, M.P. (2003). Power and control dynamics in prestalking and stalking situations. Journal of Family Violence, 18, 207–217.Google Scholar
Browne, K.R. (2006). Sex, power, and dominance: The evolutionary psychology of sexual harassment. Managerial and Decision Economics, 27, 145–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brownmiller, S. (1975). Against our will. Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Campbell, A. (2006). Feminism and evolutionary psychology. In Barkow, J. H. (Ed.), Missing the revolution: Darwinism for social scientists (pp. 63–99). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Canter, D.V., & Ioannou, M. (2004). A multivariate model of stalking behaviours. Behaviormetrika, 31, 113–130.Google Scholar
Cavezza, C., & McEwan, T.E. (2014). Cyberstalking versus off-line stalking in a forensic sample. Psychology, Crime and Law, 20, 955–970.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chamberlain, L.J., Crowley, M., Tope, D., & Hodson, R. (2008). Sexual harassment in organizational context. Work and Occupations, 35, 262–295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chan, D.K.S., Lam, C.B., Chow, S.Y., & Cheung, S.F. (2008). Examining the job-related, psychological, and physical outcomes of workplace sexual harassment: A meta-analytic review. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 362–376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheyne, N., & Guggisberg, M. (2018). Stalking: An age-old problem with new expressions in the digital age. In Guggisberg, M. & Henricksen, J. (Eds.), Violence against women in the 21st century: Challenges and future directions (pp. 161–190). Nova Science Publishers.Google Scholar
Cupach, W.R., & Spitzberg, B.H. (2004). The dark side of relationship pursuit: From attraction to obsession and stalking. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Dall’Ara, E., & Maass, A. (1999). Studying sexual harassment in the laboratory: Are egalitarian women at higher risk? Sex Roles, 41, 681–704.Google Scholar
Davis, K.E., Ace, A., & Andra, M. (2000). Stalking perpetrators and psychological maltreatment of partners: Anger-jealousy, attachment insecurity, need for control, and break-up context. Violence and Victims, 15, 407–425.Google Scholar
Dennison, S.M., & Thomson, D.M. (2005). Criticisms or plaudits for stalking laws? What psycholegal research tells us about proscribing stalking. Psychology, Public Policy and Law, 11, 384–406.Google Scholar
Department for Education. (2018, May). Sexual violence and sexual harassment between children in schools and colleges: Advice for governing bodies, proprietors, headteachers, principals, senior leadership teams and designated safeguarding. Author. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/Google Scholar
Diehl, C., Glaser, T., & Bohner, G. (2014). Face the consequences: learning about victim’s suffering reduces sexual harassment myth acceptance and men’s likelihood to sexually harass. Aggressive Behavior, 40, 489–503.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diehl, C., Rees, J., & Bohner, G. (2012). Flirting with disaster: Short-term mating orientation and hostile sexism predict different types of sexual harassment. Aggressive Behavior, 38, 521–531.Google Scholar
Diehl, C., Rees, J., & Bohner, G. (2018). Predicting sexual harassment from hostile sexism and short-term mating orientation: relative strength of predictors depends on situational priming of power versus sex. Violence Against Women, 24, 123–143.Google Scholar
Dionisi, A.M., Barling, J., & Dupre, K.E. (2012). Revisiting the comparative outcomes of workplace aggression and sexual harassment. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 17, 398–408.Google Scholar
Duntley, J.D., & Buss, D.M. (2012). The evolution of stalking. Sex Roles, 66, 311–327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Englebrecht, C. M., & Reyns, B. W. (2011). Gender differences in acknowledgment of stalking victimization: Results from the NCVS stalking supplement. Violence and Victims, 26, 560–579.Google Scholar
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights [FRA] (2014). Violence against women: An EU-side survey (main results). Author. https://fra.europa.eu/Google Scholar
Farley, L. (1978). Sexual shakedown: The sexual harassment of women on the job. McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, L.F. (1993). Sexual harassment: Violence against women in the workplace. American Psychologist, 48, 1070–1076.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, L.F., & Cortina, L.M. (2018). Sexual harassment in work organizations: a view from the 21st Century. In Travis, C.B., White, J. W., Rutherford, A., Williams, W.S., Cook, S.L., & Wyche, K.F. (Eds.), APA handbook of the psychology of women: Perspectives on women’s private and public lives (pp. 215–234). American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, L.F., Collinsworth, L.L., & Lawson, A.K. (2013). Sexual harassment, PTSD, and criterion A: If it walks like a duck… Psychological Injury and Law, 6, 81–91.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, L.F., Drasgow, F., Hulin, C.L., Gelfand, M.J., & Magley, V.J. (1997). The antecedents and consequences of sexual harassment in organisations: A test of an integrated model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 578–589.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, L.F., Gelfand, M., & Drasgow, F. (1995). Measuring sexual harassment: Theoretical and psychometric advances. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 17, 425–445.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, L.F., Swan, S., & Magley, V.J. (1997). But was it really sexual harassment? Legal, behavioral, and psychological definitions of the workplace victimization of women. In O’Donohue, W. (Ed.), Sexual harassment: Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 5–28). Allyn & Bacon.Google Scholar
Fox, K.A., Nobles, M.R., & Akers, R.L. (2011). Is stalking a learned phenomenon? An empirical test of social learning theory. Journal of Criminal Justice, 39, 39–47.Google Scholar
Fraser, C., Olsen, E., Lee, K., Southworth, C., & Tucker, S. (2010). The new age of stalking: Technological implications for stalking. Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 61, 39–55.Google Scholar
Galdi, S., Maass, A., & Cadinu, M. (2013). Objectifying media: Their effect on gender role norms and sexual harassment of women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 1–16.Google Scholar
Gekoski, A., Gray, J.M., Adler, J.R., & Horvath, M.A.H. (2017). The prevalence and nature of sexual harassment and assault against women and girls on public transport: an international review. Journal of Criminological Research, Policy and Practice, 3, 3–16.Google Scholar
Gelfand, M.J., Fitzgerald, L.F., & Drasgow, F. (1995). The structure of sexual harassment: A confirmatory analysis across cultures and settings. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 47, 164–177.Google Scholar
Gerger, H., Kley, H., Bohner, G., & Siebler, F. (2007). The acceptance of modern myths about sexual aggression scale: development and validation in German and English. Aggressive Behavior, 33, 422–440.Google Scholar
Glomb, T.M., Richman, W.L., Hulin, C.L., Drasgow, F., Schneider, K.T., & Fitzgerald, L.F. (1997). Ambient sexual harassment: An integrated model of antecedents and consequences. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 71, 309–328.Google Scholar
Groves, R.M., Salfati, C.G., & Elliot, D. (2004). The influence of prior offender/victim relationship on offender stalking behavior. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 1, 153–167.Google Scholar
Gruber, J.E. (1992). A typology of personal and environmental sexual harassment: Research and policy implications for the 1990s. Sex Roles, 26, 447–464.Google Scholar
Gruber, J.E., Smith, M., & Kauppinen-Toropainen, K. (1996). Sexual harassment types and severity: Linking research and policy. In Stockdale, M.S. (Ed.), Sexual harassment in the workplace: Perspectives, frontiers, and response strategies (pp. 151–173). Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gutek, B.A. (1985). Sex and the workplace: Impact of sexual behavior and harassment on women, men, and organizations. Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Gutek, B.A., O’Connor, M.A., Melancon, R., Stockdale, M.S., Geer, T.M., & Done, R.S. (1999). The utility of the reasonable woman legal standard in hostile environment sexual harassment cases: A multimethod, multistudy examination. Psychology, Public Policy and Law, 5, 596–629.Google Scholar
Häkkänen, H., Hagelstam, C., & Santtila, P. (2003). Stalking actions, prior offender–victim relationships and issuing of restraining orders in a Finnish sample of stalkers. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 8, 189–206.Google Scholar
Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary. (2017, July). Living in fear – The police and CPS response to harassment and stalking: A joint inspection by HMIC and HMCPSI. Author.Google Scholar
Hershcovis, M.S., & Barling, J. (2010). Comparing victim attributions and outcomes for workplace aggression and sexual harassment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 874–888.Google Scholar
Hitlan, R.T., Pryor, J.B., Hesson-McInnis, M.S., & Olson, M. (2009). Antecedents of gender harassment: An analysis of person and situation factors. Sex Roles, 61, 794–807.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holland, K.J., & Cortina, L.M. (2013). When sexism and feminism collide: The sexual harassment of feminist working women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(2), 192–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holland, K.J., Rabelo, V.C., Gustafson, A.M., Seabrook, R.C., & Cortina, L.M. (2015). Sexual harassment against men: examining the roles of feminist activism, sexuality, and organizational context. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 17, 17–29.Google Scholar
Ilies, R., Hauserman, N., Schwochau, S., & Stibal, J. (2003). Reported incidence rates of work-related sexual harassment in the United States: Using meta-analysis to explain reported rate disparities. Personnel Psychology, 56, 607–631.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Imkaan, . (2016, May 7). “I’d just like to be free” – Young women speak out about sexual harassment [YouTube video]. https://www.youtube.com/Google Scholar
Infield, P., & Platford, G. (2005). Stalking and the law. In Boon, J. & Sheridan, L. (Eds.), Stalking and psychosexual obsession: Psychological perspectives for prevention, policing, and treatment (pp. 221–235). John Wiley.Google Scholar
Johnson, E.F., & Thompson, C.M. (2016). Factors associated with stalking persistence. Psychology, Crime and Law, 22, 879–902.Google Scholar
Kabat-Farr, D., & Cortina, L.M. (2014). Sex-based harassment in employment: new insights into gender and context. Law and Human Behavior, 38, 58–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kearl, H. (2018, February). The facts behind the #MeToo movement: A national study on sexual harassment and assault. Stop Street Harassment. http://www.stopstreetharassment.org/Google Scholar
Kelly, L. (1988). Surviving sexual violence. University of Minessota Press.Google Scholar
Kienlen, K.K. (1998). Developmental and social antecedents of stalking. In Meloy, J.R. (Ed.), The psychology of stalking: Clinical and forensic perspectives (pp. 51–67). Academic Press.Google Scholar
Killean, R., Stannard, J., McNaull, G., Beigi, S., Born, A., Johnston, S., et al. (2016). Review of the need for stalking legislation in Northern Ireland. Queen’s University Belfast. https://pureadmin.qub.ac.uk/Google Scholar
Konik, J., & Cortina, L.M. (2008). Policing gender at work: Intersections of harassment based on sex and sexuality. Social Justice Research, 21, 313–337.Google Scholar
Kropp, P.R., Hart, S.D., & Lyon, D.R. (2002). Risk assessment of stalkers: Some problems and possible solutions. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 29, 590–616.Google Scholar
Lamplugh, D., & Infield, P. (2003). Harmonising anti-stalking laws. The George Washington Law Review, 34, 853–870.Google Scholar
Langenderfer-Magruder, L., Walls, N.E., Whitfield, D.L., Kattari, S.K., & Ramos, D. (2020). Stalking victimization in LGBTQ adults: A brief report. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35, 1442–1453.Google Scholar
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. (2012). Gender and stalking: Current intersections and future directions. Sex Roles, 5–6, 418–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Larsen, S.E., & Fitzgerald, L.F. (2011). PTSD symptoms and sexual harassment: The role of attributions and perceived control. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 2555–2567.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, K., Gizzarone, M., & Ashton, M.C. (2003). Personality and the likelihood to sexually harass. Sex Roles, 49, 59–69.Google Scholar
Leskinen, E.A., & Cortina, L.M. (2014). Dimensions of disrespect: Mapping and measuring gender harassment in organizations. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38(1), 107–123.Google Scholar
Leskinen, E.A., Cortina, L.M., & Kabat, D.B. (2011). Gender harassment: Broadening our understanding of sex-based harassment at work. Law and Human Behavior, 35, 25–39.Google Scholar
Leskinen, E.A., Rabelo, V.C., & Cortina, L.M. (2015). Gender stereotyping and harassment: a “catch-22” for women in the workplace. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 21, 192–204.Google Scholar
Lewis, S.F., Fremouw, W.J., Del Ben, K., & Farr, C. (2001). An investigation of the psychological characteristics of stalkers: Empathy, problem-solving, attachment and borderline personality features. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 46, 80–84.Google Scholar
Lim, S., & Cortina, L.M. (2005). Interpersonal mistreatment in the workplace: the interface and impact of general incivility and sexual harassment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 483–496.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Long, R. (2020, March). Relationships and sex education in schools (England) (Briefing Paper No. 06103). House of Commons Library. https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/Google Scholar
Lyon, D.R. (2006). An examination of police investigation files for criminal harassment (stalking): Implications for case management (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Simon Fraser University.Google Scholar
Maass, A., & Cadinu, M. (2006). Protecting a threatened identity through sexual harassment: A social identity interpretation. In Brown, R. & Capozza, D. (Eds.), Social identities: Motivational, emotional, cultural influences (pp. 109–131). Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Maass, A., Cadinu, M., Guarnieri, G., & Grasselli, A. (2003). Sexual harassment under social identity threat: The computer harassment paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(5), 853–870.Google Scholar
MacKinnon, C.A. (1979). Sexual harassment of working women: A case of sex discrimination. Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Maple, C., Short, E., & Brown, A. (2011, January). Cyberstalking in the United Kingdom: An analysis of the ECHO Pilot Survey. https://paladinservice.co.uk/Google Scholar
Marcum, C.D., Higgins, G.E., & Ricketts, M.L. (2014). Juveniles and cyber stalking in the United States: An analysis of theoretical predictors of patterns of online perpetration. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 8, 47–56.Google Scholar
McDonald, P. (2012). Workplace sexual harassment 30 years on: A review of the literature. International Journal of Management Reviews, 14, 1–17.Google Scholar
McEwan, T.E., & Davis, M.R. (2020). Is there a ‘best’ stalking typology?: Parsing the heterogeneity of stalking and stalkers in an Australian Sample. In Sheridan, L. & Choon, H.C. (Eds.), Psycho-criminological approaches to stalking behavior: An international perspective (pp. 115–135). John Wiley.Google Scholar
McEwan, T.E., Mullen, P.E., & MacKenzie, R. (2007). Anti-stalking legislation in practice: Are we meeting community needs? Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 14, 207–217.Google Scholar
McEwan, T.E., Shea, D.E., Daffern, M., MacKenzie, R.D., Ogloff, J.R.P., & Mullen, P.E. (2018). The reliability and predictive validity of the stalking risk profile. Assessment, 25, 259–276.Google Scholar
McFarlane, L., & Bocij, P. (2003). An exploration of predatory behaviour in cyberspace: Towards a typology of cyberstalkers. First Monday, 8.Google Scholar
McLaughlin, H., Uggen, C., & Blackstone, A. (2012). Sexual harassment, workplace authority, and the paradox of power. American Sociological Review, 77, 625–647.Google Scholar
Meloy, J.R. (1999). Stalking: An old behavior, a new crime. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 22, 85–99.Google Scholar
Ménard, K.S., & Pincus, A.L. (2012). Predicting overt and cyber stalking perpetration by male and female college students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27, 2183–2207.Google Scholar
Mohandie, K., Meloy, J.R., McGowan, M.G., & Williams, J. (2004). The RECON typology of stalking: Reliability and validity based upon a large sample of North American stalkers. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 51, 147–155.Google Scholar
Muir, D, & Robach, A. (Anchors). (2019, April 12). Your biggest fan (Season 42, Episode 33) [Television series episode]. In D. Sloan (Executive Producer), 20/20. American Broadcasting Company.Google Scholar
Mullen, P.E., Pathé, M., & Purcell, R. (2000). Stalkers and their victims. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mullen, P.E., Pathé, M., & Purcell, R. (2001). Stalking: New constructions of human behaviour. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 35, 9–16.Google Scholar
Mullen, P.E., Pathé, M., & Purcell, R. (2009). Stalkers and their victims (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mullen, P.E., Pathé, M., Purcell, R., & Stuart, G.W. (1999). Study of stalkers. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1244–1249.Google Scholar
Murray, K. (2016). 2014/15 Scottish Crime and Justice Survey. Sexual victimisation and stalking. National Statistics.Google Scholar
National Institute of Justice. (1993, October). Project to develop a model anti-stalking code for states. U.S. Department of Justice.Google Scholar
O’Leary-Kelly, A.M., Bowes-Sperry, L., Bates, C.A., & Lean, E.R. (2009). Sexual harassment at work: A decade (plus) of progress. Journal of Management, 35, 503–536.Google Scholar
O’Leary-Kelly, A.M., Paetzold, R.L., & Griffin, R.W. (2000). Sexual harassment as aggressive behavior: An actor-based perspective. Academy of Management Review, 25(2), 372–388.Google Scholar
Office for National Statistics. (2020, July). Crime Survey for England and Wales: Year ending March 2020 – Annual supplementary tables. Author. https://www.ons.gov.uk/Google Scholar
Ogilvie, E. (2000a). Stalking: Legislative, policing and prosecution patterns in Australia. Australian Institute of Criminology.Google Scholar
Ogilvie, E. (2000b). Stalking: Policing and prosecuting practices in three Australian jurisdictions. Australian Institute of Criminology.Google Scholar
Owens, J.G. (2016). Why definitions matter: Stalking victimization in the United States. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 31, 2196–2226.Google Scholar
Paetzold, R.L., & O’Leary-Kelly, A.M. (1994). Hostile environment sexual harassment in the United States: Post-Meritor developments and implications. Gender, Work & Organization, 1, 50–57.Google Scholar
Page, T.E., & Pina, A. (2015). Moral disengagement as a self-regulatory process in sexual harassment perpetration at work: A preliminary conceptualization. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 21, 73–84.Google Scholar
Page, T.E., & Pina, A. (2018). Moral disengagement and self-reported harassment proclivity in men: the mediating effects of moral judgment and emotions. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 24, 157–180.Google Scholar
Page, T.E., Pina, A., & Giner-Sorolla, R. (2016). “It was only harmless banter!” The development and preliminary validation of the moral disengagement in sexual harassment scale. Aggressive Behavior, 42, 254–273.Google Scholar
Paludi, M. (1990). Sexual harassment on college campuses: Abusing the ivory power. SUNY Press.Google Scholar
Pathé, M., & Mullen, P.E. (1997). The impact of stalkers on their victims. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 12–17.Google Scholar
Pathé, M., MacKenzie, R., & Mullen, P.E. (2004). Stalking by law: Damaging victims and rewarding offenders. Journal of Law and Medicine, 12, 103–111.Google Scholar
Patton, C.L., Nobles, M.R., & Fox, K.A. (2010). Look who’s stalking: Obsessive pursuit and attachment theory. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38, 282–290.Google Scholar
Phillips, L., Quirk, R., Rosenfeld, B., & O’Connor, M. (2004). Is it stalking? Perceptions of stalking among college undergraduates. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 31, 73–96.Google Scholar
Pina, A., & Gannon, T.A. (2012). An overview of the literature on antecedents, perceptions and behavioural consequences of sexual harassment. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 18, 209–232.Google Scholar
Pina, A., Gannon, T.A., & Saunders, B. (2009). An overview of the literature on sexual harassment: Perpetrator, theory, and treatment issues. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14, 126–138.Google Scholar
Pittaro, M.L. (2007). Cyber stalking: An analysis of online harassment and intimidation. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 1, 180–197. Retrieved from http://cybercrimejournal.com/Google Scholar
Pryor, J.B. (1987). Sexual harassment proclivities in men. Sex Roles, 17, 269–290.Google Scholar
Pryor, J.B., & Fitzgerald, L.F. (2003). Sexual harassment research in the United States. In Einarsen, S., Hoel, H., Zapf, D. & Cooper, C.L. (Eds.), Bullying and emotional abuse in the workplace: International perspectives in research and practice (pp. 79–100). Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Pryor, J.B., Giedd, J.L., & Williams, K.B. (1995). A social psychological model for predicting sexual harassment. Journal of Social Issues, 51, 69–84.Google Scholar
Pryor, J.B., LaVite, C.M., & Stoller, L.M. (1993). A social psychological analysis of sexual harassment: The person/situation interaction. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 42, 66–83.Google Scholar
Purcell, R., Pathé, M., & Mullen, P.E. (2004). Stalking: Defining and prosecuting a new category of offending. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 27, 157–169.Google Scholar
Purcell, R., Pathé, M.T., & Mullen, P.E. (2001). A study of women who stalk. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 2056–2060.Google Scholar
Rabelo, V.C., & Cortina, L.M. (2014). Two sides of the same coin: gender harassment and heterosexist harassment in LGBQ work lives. Law and Human Behavior, 38, 378–391.Google Scholar
Reyns, B.W. & Fisher, B.A. (2018). The relationship between offline and online stalking victimization: A gender-specific analysis. Violence and Victims, 33, 769–786.Google Scholar
Reyns, B.W., Henson, B., & Fisher, B.S. (2012). Stalking in the twilight zone: Extent of cyberstalking victimization and offending among college students. Deviant Behavior, 33, 1–25.Google Scholar
Rudman, L.A., & Mescher, K. (2012). Of animals and objects: Men’s implicit dehumanization of women and likelihood of sexual aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 734–746.Google Scholar
Saunders, R., & Wainwright, S.L. (2008). Prosecuting celebrity stalkers. In Meloy, J.R., Sheridan, L., & Hoffmann, J. (Eds.), Stalking, threatening, and attacking public figures: A psychological behavioral analysis (pp. 407–425). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Scott, A.J. (2008). The psychology of stalking. Psychology Review, 13, 2–5.Google Scholar
Scott, A.J., (2020). Stalking: How perceptions differ from reality and why these differences matter. In Bull, R. & Blandon-Gitlin, I. (Eds.), The Routledge international handbook of legal and investigative psychology (pp. 238–254). Routledge.Google Scholar
Shepela, S.T., & Levesque, L.L. (1998). Poisoned waters: sexual harassment and the college climate. Sex Roles, 38, 589–611.Google Scholar
Sheridan, L., & Davies, G.M. (2001). Violence and the prior victim-stalker relationship. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 11, 102–116.Google Scholar
Sheridan, L., Blaauw, E., & Davies, G.M. (2003). Stalking: Knowns and unknowns. Trauma, Violence and Abuse, 4, 148–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheridan, L.P., & Grant, T. (2007). Is cyberstalking different? Psychology, Crime and Law, 13, 627–640.Google Scholar
Sheridan, L.P., North, A.C., & Scott, A.J. (2014). Experiences of stalking in same-sex and opposite-sex contexts. Violence and Victims, 29, 1014–1028.Google Scholar
Sheridan, L.P., Scott, A.J., & Campbell, A.M. (2019). Perceptions and experiences of intrusive behavior and stalking: Comparing LGBTIQ and heterosexual groups. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34, 1388–1409.Google Scholar
Siebler, F., Sabelus, S., & Bohner, G. (2008). A refined computer harassment paradigm: Validation, and test of hypotheses about target characteristics. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 22–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SPARC. (2020). Stalking awareness month 2020. www.stalkingawareness.org/Google Scholar
Spitzberg, B.H. (2002). The tactical topography of stalking victimization and management. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 3, 261–288.Google Scholar
Spitzberg, B.H., & Cupach, W.R. (2007). The state of the art of stalking: Taking stock of the emerging literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 12, 64–86.Google Scholar
Stalking Risk Profile. (2011). Stalking legislation. www.stalkingriskprofile.com/Google Scholar
Stockdale, M.S. (2005). The sexual harassment of men: articulating the approach-rejection distinction in sexual harassment motives. In Gruber, J.E. & Morgan, P. (Eds.), In the company of men: Rediscovering the links between sexual harassment and male domination. Northeastern University Press.Google Scholar
Stockdale, M.S., Gandolfo Berry, C., Schneider, R.W., & Cao, F. (2004). Perceptions of the sexual harassment of men. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 5, 158–167.Google Scholar
Stockdale, M.S., Visio, M., & Batra, L. (1999). The sexual harassment of men: Evidence for a broader theory of sexual harassment and sex discrimination. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 5, 630–664.Google Scholar
Strand, S., & McEwan, T.E. (2011). Same-gender stalking in Sweden and Australia. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 29, 202–219.Google Scholar
Studd, M.V., & Gattiker, U.E. (1991). The evolutionary psychology of sexual harassment in organizations. Etiology and Sociobiology, 12, 249–290.Google Scholar
Tang, W.Y., & Fox, J. (2016). Men’s harassment behavior in online video games: Personality traits and game factors. Aggressive Behavior, 42, 513–521.Google Scholar
Tangri, S., & Hayes, S. (1997). Theories of sexual harassment. In O’Donohue, W. (Ed.), Sexual harassment: Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 112–128). Allyn & Bacon.Google Scholar
Tangri, S.S., Burt, M.R., & Johnson, L.B. (1982). Sexual harassment at work: Three explanatory models. Journal of Social Issues, 38, 33–54.Google Scholar
Thompson, L. (2018). “I can be your Tinder nightmare”: Harassment and misogyny in the online sexual marketplace. Feminism and Psychology, 28, 69–89.Google Scholar
Trades Union Congress. (2016). Still just a bit of banter? Sexual harassment in the workplace in 2016. Trade Union Congress. www.tuc.org.uk/Google Scholar
Trades Union Congress. (2019). Sexual harassment of LGBT people in the workplace: A TUC report. Author. www.tuc.org.uk/Google Scholar
Tran, N.B. (2003). A comparative look at anti-stalking legislation in the United States and Japan. Hastings International and Comparative Law Review, 26, 445–477. https://repository.uchastings.edu/Google Scholar
Valentine, V. (2016). Non-binary people’s experiences in the UK. Scottish Trans Alliance. www.scottishtrans.org/Google Scholar
Van Royen, K., Poels, K., & Vandebosch, H. (2016). Help, I am losing control! Examining the reporting of sexual harassment by adolescents to social networking sites. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 19, 16–22.Google Scholar
Waldo, C.R., Berdahl, J.L., & Fitzgerald, L.F. (1998). Are men sexually harassed? If so, by whom? Law and Human Behavior, 22, 59–79.Google Scholar
White, E., Longpré, N., & Stefanska, E.B. (2020). Stalking behaviors presented by ex-intimate stalkers: A victim’s perspective. Journal of interpersonal Violence. Advance online publication.Google Scholar
Wiener, R.L., Gervais, S.J., Brnjic, E., & Nuss, G.D. (2014). Dehumanization of older people: The evaluation of hostile work environments. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 20, 384–397.Google Scholar
Willness, C.R., Steel, P., & Lee, K. (2007). A meta-analysis of the antecedents and consequences of workplace sexual harassment. Personnel Psychology, 60, 127–162.Google Scholar
Zeigler-Hill, V., Besser, A., Morag, J., & Campbell, W.K. (2016). The Dark Triad and sexual harassment proclivity. Personality and Individual Differences, 89, 47–54.Google Scholar
Zona, M. A., Sharma, K. K., & Lane, J. (1993). A comparative study of erotomanic and obsessional subjects in a forensic sample. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 38, 894–903.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×