Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-hc48f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-05T19:08:21.312Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

30 - Kin Selection and the Evolution of Male Androphilia

from Part VII - Sexual Selection and Human Sex Differences

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 March 2020

By
Paul L. Vasey ,
Lanna J. Petterson ,
Scott W. Semenyna ,
Francisco R. Gómez Jiménez  and
Doug P. VanderLaan
Edited by
Lance Workman ,
Will Reader  and
Jerome H. Barkow
Lance Workman
Affiliation:
University of South Wales
Will Reader
Affiliation:
Sheffield Hallam University
Jerome H. Barkow
Affiliation:
Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia
Get access

Summary

Androphilia refers to sexual attraction and arousal to adult males, whereas gynephilia refers to sexual attraction and arousal to adult females. Male androphilia is considered one of the outstanding paradoxes of evolutionary biology because its very existence flouts our expectations concerning what constitutes an evolutionarily viable trait (Bailey & Zuk, 2009). In humans, male androphilia is heritable, as evinced by twin studies (Alanko et al., 2010; Bailey et al., 2000; Kendler et al., 2000; Långström et al., 2010), as well as research in the area of molecular genetics (Hamer et al., 1993; Mustanski et al.,2005; Sanders et al., 2015). Despite the heritability of this trait, androphilic males reproduce at far lower rates when compared to gynephilic males, if they reproduce at all, which, very often, they do not (e.g., Bell & Weinberg, 1978; King et al., 2005; Saghir & Robins, 1973; Schwartz et al., 2010).

Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Behavior , pp. 366 - 377
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abild, M. L., VanderLaan, D. P., & Vasey, P. L. (2014). Does geographic proximity influence the expression of avuncular tendencies in Canadian androphilic males? Journal of Cognition and Culture, 14, 41–63.Google Scholar
Adams, B. D. (1986). Age, structure and sexuality. Journal of Homosexuality, 11, 19–33.Google Scholar
Alanko, K., Santtila, P., Harlaar, N., et al. (2010). Common genetic effects of gender atypical behavior in childhood and sexual orientation in adulthood: A study of Finnish twins. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 81–92.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar
Bailey, J. M. (2003). The Man Who Would Be Queen: The Science of Gender-Bending and Transsexualism. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press.Google Scholar
Bailey, J. M., & Triea, K. (2007). What many transgender activists don’t want you to know: And why you should know it anyway. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 50, 521–534.Google Scholar
Bailey, J. M., & Zucker, K. J. (1995). Childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation: A conceptual analysis and quantitative review. Developmental Psychology, 31, 43–55.Google Scholar
Bailey, J. M., Gaulin, S., Agyei, Y., & Gladue, B. A. (1994). Effects of gender and sexual orientation on evolutionarily relevant aspects of human mating psychology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 1081–1093.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bailey, J. M., Dunne, M. P., & Martin, N. G. (2000). Genetics and environmental influences on sexual orientation and its correlates in an Australian twin sample. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 524–536.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, N. W., & Zuk, M. (2009). Same-sex sexual behavior and evolution. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 24, 439–446.Google Scholar
Bartlett, N. B., & Vasey, P. L. (2006). A retrospective study of childhood gender-atypical behavior in Samoan fa’afafine. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35, 559–566.Google Scholar
Bell, A. P., & Weinberg, M. S. (1978). Homosexualities: A Study of Diversity among Men and Women. New York: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Belovsky, G. E. (1988). An optimal foraging-based model of hunter–gatherer population dynamics. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 7, 329–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berling, T. (2001). Sissyphobia: Gay Men and Effeminate Behavior. Binghamton, NY: Harrington Park Press.Google Scholar
Besharat, M. A., Karimi, S., & Saadati, M. (2016). A comparison of childhood gender nonconformity and fertility rate in a lineage in male homosexuals and heterosexuals. Contemporary Psychology, 10, 3–14.Google Scholar
Binford, L. R. (2001). Constructing Frames of References: An Analytical Method for Archaeological Theory Building Using Hunter–Gatherer and Environmental Data Sets. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Blanchard, R. (2018). Fraternal birth order, family size, and male homosexuality: Meta-analysis of studies spanning 25 years. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47, 1–15.Google Scholar
Blanchard, R., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2015). Commentary on Kishida & Rahman (2015), including a meta-analysis of relevant studies on fraternal birth order and sexual orientation in men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 1503–1509.Google Scholar
Bobrow, B., & Bailey, J. M. (2001). Is male homosexuality maintained via kin selection? Evolution and Human Behavior, 22, 361–368.Google Scholar
Bowen, R. C., Offord, D. R., & Boyle, M. H. (1990). The prevalence of overanxious disorder and separation anxiety disorder: Results from the Ontario Child Health Study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 753–758.Google Scholar
Bozkurt, A., Bozkurt, O. H., & Sonmez, I. (2015). Birth order and sibling sex ratio in a population with high fertility: Are Turkish male-to-female transsexuals different? Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 1331–1337.Google Scholar
Brown, D. E. (1991). Human Universals. New York: McGraw Hill.Google Scholar
Buss, D. M., Haselton, M. G., Shackelford, T. K., Bleske, A. L., & Wakefield, J. C. (1998). Adaptations, exaptations, and spandrels. American Psychologist, 53, 533–548.Google Scholar
Camperio Ciani, A., & Pellizzari, E. (2012). Fecundity of paternal and maternal non-parental female relatives of homosexual and heterosexual men. PLoS ONE, 7(12), e51088.Google Scholar
Camperio Ciani, A., Corna, F., & Capiluppi, C. (2004). Evidence for maternally inherited factors favoring male homosexuality and promoting female fecundity. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 271, 2217–2221.Google Scholar
Camperio Ciani, A., Battaglia, U., & Liotta, M. (2016). Societal norms rather than sexual orientation influence kin altruism and avuncularity in tribal Urak-Lawoi, Italian, and Spanish adult males. Journal of Sex Research, 53, 137–148.Google Scholar
Cantor, J. M., Blanchard, R., Paterson, A. D., & Bogaert, A. F. (2002). How many gay men owe their sexual orientation to fraternal birth order? Archives of Sexual Behavior, 31, 63–71.Google Scholar
Cardoso, F. L. (2005). Cultural universals and differences in male homosexuality: The case of a Brazilian fishing village. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34, 103–109.Google Scholar
Cardoso, F. L. (2009). Recalled sex-typed behavior in childhood and sports’ preferences in adulthood of heterosexual, bisexual, and homosexual men from Brazil, Turkey, and Thailand. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38, 726–736.Google Scholar
Coates, S., & Person, E. S. (1985). Extreme boyhood femininity: Isolated behavior or pervasive disorder? Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24, 702–709.Google Scholar
Crompton, L. (2003). Homosexuality and Civilization. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.Google Scholar
Deakin, T. (1965). Evidence for homosexuality in ancient Egypt. International Journal of Greek Love, 1, 31–38.Google Scholar
Dickemann, M. (1995). Wilson’s panchreston: The inclusive fitness hypothesis of sociobiology re-examined. Journal of Homosexuality, 28, 147–183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dreger, A. D. (2008). The controversy surrounding The Man Who Would Be Queen: A case history of the politics of science, identity, and sex in the internet age. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 37, 366–421.Google Scholar
Duff-Cooper, A. (1985). Notes about some Balinese ideas and practices connected with sex from Western Lombok. Anthropos, 80, 403–419.Google Scholar
Forrester, D. L., VanderLaan, D. P., Parker, J. L., & Vasey, P. L. (2011). Male sexual orientation and avuncularity in Canada: Implications for the kin selection hypothesis. Journal of Cognition and Culture, 11, 339–352.Google Scholar
“G” (1980). The secret life of Moscow. Christopher Street, June, pp. 15–22.Google Scholar
García-Cárdenas, N., Olvera-Hernández, S., Gómez-Quintanar, B. N., & Fernández-Guasti, A. (2015). Male rats with same-sex preference show high experimental anxiety and lack of anxiogenic-like effect of fluoxetine in the plus maze test. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 135, 128–135CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gates, G. J. (2011). How many people are lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender? The Williams Institute. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/09h684x2.Google Scholar
Gaudio, R. C. (2009). Allah Made Us: Sexual Outlaws in an Islamic African City. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Gómez, F. R., Semenyna, S. W., Court, L. & Vasey, P. L. (2017). Recalled childhood separation anxiety in Istmo Zapotec men, women, and muxes. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46, 109–117.Google Scholar
Gómez, F. R., Semenyna, S. W., Court, L., & Vasey, P. L. (2018). Familial clustering of male androphilia among Istmo Zapotec men and muxe. PLoS ONE, 13(2), e0192683.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gómez-Gil, E., Esteva, I., Carrasco, R., et al. (2011). Birth order and ratio of brothers to sisters in Spanish transsexuals. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40, 505–510.Google Scholar
Green, R. (1987). The “Sissy Boy Syndrome” and the Development of Homosexuality. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Hamer, D. H., Hu, S., Magnuson, V. L., Hu, N., & Pattatucci, A. M. L. (1993). A linkage between DNA markers on the X chromosome and male sexual orientation. Science, 261, 321–327.Google Scholar
Hames, R., Garfield, Z. H., & Garfield, M. J. (2017). Is male androphilia a context-dependent cross-cultural universal? Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46, 63–71.Google Scholar
Hamilton, W. D. (1963). The evolution of altruistic behavior. American Naturalist, 97, 354–356.Google Scholar
Hart, D. V. (1968). Homosexuality and transvestism in the Philippines: The Cebuan Filipino bayot and lakin-on. Behavior Science Notes, 3, 211–248.Google Scholar
Hernández, A., & Fernández-Guasti, A. (2018). Male rates with same-sex preference show higher immobility in the forced swim test, but similar effects of fluoxetine and desipramine than males that prefer females. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 171, 39–45.Google Scholar
Hewlett, B., & Hewlett, B. L. (2010). Sex and searching for children among Aka foragers and Ngandu farmers of Central Africa. African Studies Monographs, 31, 107–125.Google Scholar
Hill, K. R., Walker, R. S., Bozicevic, M., et al. (2011). Co-residence patterns in hunter–gatherer societies show unique human social structure. Science, 331, 1286–1289.Google Scholar
Iemmola, F., & Camperio Ciani, A. (2009). New evidence of genetic factors influencing sexual orientation in men: Female fecundity increase in the maternal line. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38, 393–399.Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Thronton, L. M., Gilman, S. E., & Kessler, R. C. (2000). Sexual orientation in a US national sample of twin and non-twin sibling pairs. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1843–1846.Google Scholar
King, M. D., Green, J., Osborn, D. P. J., et al. (2005). Family size in white gay and heterosexual men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34, 117–122.Google Scholar
Långström, N., Rahman, Q., Calström, E., & Lichtenstein, P. (2010). Genetic and environmental effects on same sex-sexual behavior: A population study of twins in Sweden. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 75–80.Google Scholar
LeVay, S. (2016). Gay, Straight and the Reason Why: The Science of Sexual Orientation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lippa, R. A. (2005). Gender, Nature, Nurture, 2nd ed. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Marlowe, F. W. (2005). Hunters–gatherers and human evolution. Evolutionary Anthropology, 14, 54–67.Google Scholar
McBrearty, S., & Brooks, A. S. (2000). The revolution that wasn’t: A new interpretation of the origins of modern human behavior. Journal of Human Evolution, 39, 453–563.Google Scholar
Mirandé, A. (2017). Behind the Mask: Gender Hybridity in a Zapotec Community. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.Google Scholar
Mustanski, B. S., Dupree, M. G., Nievergelt, C. M., et al. (2005). A genomewide scan of male sexual orientation. Human Genetics, 116, 272–278.Google Scholar
Namaste, V. (2000). Invisible Lives: The Erasure of Transsexual and Transgender People. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Nanda, S. (1998). Neither Man nor Woman: The Hijras of India. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Nanda, S. (2014). Gender Diversity: Crosscultural Variations. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.Google Scholar
Nila, S., Barthes, J., Crochet, P.-A., Suryobroto, B., & Raymond, M. (2018). Kin selection and male homosexual preference in Indonesia. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47(8), 2455–2465.Google Scholar
Petterson, L. J., Dixson, B. J., Little, A. C., & Vasey, P. L. (2015). Viewing time measures of sexual orientation in Samoan cisgender men who engage in sexual interactions with fa’fafine. PLoS ONE, 10(2), e0116529.Google Scholar
Petterson, L. J., Dixson, B. J., Little, A. C., & Vasey, P. L. (2016). Reconsidering male bisexuality: Sexual activity role and sexual attraction in Samoan men who engage in sexual interactions with fa’afafine. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 3, 11–26.Google Scholar
Petterson, L. J., Wrightson, C., & Vasey, P. L. (2017). A retrospective study of childhood gender-atypical behavior in Japanese androphilic males. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46, 119–127.Google Scholar
Petterson, L. J., Dixson, B. J., Little, A. C., & Vasey, P. L. (2018). Viewing time and self-report measures of sexual attraction in Samoan cisgender and transgender androphilic males. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47(8), 2427–2434.Google Scholar
Pittin, R. (1983). Houses of women: A focus on alternative life-styles in Katsina City. In Oppong, C., ed., Female and Male in West Africa. London: George Allen & Unwin, pp. 291–302.Google Scholar
Rahman, Q., & Hull, M. S. (2005). An empirical test of the kin selection hypothesis for male homosexuality. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34, 461–467.Google Scholar
Rieger, G., & Savin-Williams, R. C. (2012). Gender nonconformity, sexual orientation, and psychological well-being. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41, 611–621.Google Scholar
Rieger, G., Linsenmeier, J. A., Gygax, L., & Bailey, J. M. (2008). Sexual orientation and childhood gender nonconformity: Evidence from home videos. Developmental Psychology, 44, 46–58.Google Scholar
Saghir, M. T., & Robins, E. (1973). Male and Female Homosexuality: A Comprehensive Investigation. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.Google Scholar
Samaco, R. C., Mandel-Brehm, C., McGraw, C. M., et al. (2012). Crh and Oprm1 mediate anxiety-related behavior and social approach in a mouse model of MECP2 duplication syndrome. Nature Genetics, 44, 206–211.Google Scholar
Sanders, A. R., Martin, E. R., Beecham, G. W., et al. (2015). Genome-wide scan demonstrates significant linkage for male sexual orientation. Psychological Medicine, 45, 1379–1388.Google Scholar
Sanderson, S. K., & Roberts, W. W. (2008). The evolutionary forms of the religious life: A cross-cultural, quantitative analysis. American Anthropologist, 110, 454–466.Google Scholar
Schuvaloff, G. (1976). Gay life in Russia. Christopher Street, September, pp. 14–22.Google Scholar
Schwartz, G., Kim, R. M., Kolundziji, A. B., Rieger, G., & Sanders, A. R. (2010). Biodemographic and physical correlates of sexual orientation in men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 93–109.Google Scholar
Sear, R., & Mace, R. (2008). Who keeps children alive? A review of the effects of kin on child survival. Evolution and Human Behavior, 29, 1–18.Google Scholar
Semenyna, S. W., & Vasey, P. L. (2016). The relationship between adult occupational preferences and childhood gender nonconformity among Samoan women, men, and fa’afafine. Human Nature, 27, 283–295.Google Scholar
Semenyna, S. W., & Vasey, P. L. (2019). Prestige striving in Samoa: A comparison of men, women and fa’afafine. Journal of Homosexuality, 66(11), 1535–1545.Google Scholar
Semenyna, S. W., Petterson, L. J. & VanderLaan, D. P., & Vasey, P. L. (2017a). A comparison of the reproductive output among the relatives of Samoan androphilic fa’afafine and gynephilic men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46, 87–93.Google Scholar
Semenyna, S. W., Petterson, L. J. & VanderLaan, D. P., & Vasey, P. L. (2017b). Familial patterning and prevalence of male androphilia in Samoa. Journal of Sex Research, 54, 1077–1084.Google Scholar
Semenyna, S. W., VanderLaan, D. P., & Vasey, P. L. (2017c). Birth order and recalled gender nonconformity in Samoan men and fa’afafine. Developmental Psychobiology, 59, 338–347.Google Scholar
Shear, K., Jin, R., Ruscio, A. M., Walters, E. E., & Kessler, R. C. (2006). Prevalence and correlates of estimated DSM-IV child and adult separation anxiety disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey replication. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 1074–1083.Google Scholar
Singh, D. (2012). A follow-up of boys with gender identity disorder. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto.Google Scholar
Smith, A. B. (1999). Archaeology and the evolution of hunter–gatherers. In Lee, R. B. & Daly, R., eds., The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 384–390.Google Scholar
Steensma, T. D., van der Ende, J., Verhulst, F. C., & Cohen-Kettenis, P. T. (2013). Gender variance in childhood and sexual orientation in adulthood: A prospective study. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 10, 2723–2733.Google Scholar
Sweet, M., & Zwilling, L. (1993). The first medicalization: The taxonomy and etiology of queerness in classical Indian medicine. Journal of the History of Sexuality, 3, 590–697.Google Scholar
Taylor, T. (1996). The Prehistory of Sex: Four Million Years of Human Sexual Culture. New York: Bantam Books.Google Scholar
Thomas, W. (1997). Navajo cultural constructions of gender and sexuality. In Jacobs, S. E., Thomas, W., & Lang, S., eds., Two-Spirit People: Native American Gender Identity, Sexuality and Spirituality. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press, pp. 156–173.Google Scholar
Totman, R. (2003). The Third Sex – Kathoey: Thailand’s Ladyboys. London: Souvenir Press.Google Scholar
VanderLaan, D. P., & Vasey, P. L. (2011). Male sexual orientation in Independent Samoa: Evidence for the fraternal birth order and maternal fecundity effects. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40, 495–503.Google Scholar
VanderLaan, D. P., & Vasey, P. L. (2012). Relationship status and elevated avuncularity in Samoan fa’afafine. Personal Relationships, 19, 326–339.Google Scholar
VanderLaan, D. P., & Vasey, P. L. (2013). Birth order and avuncular tendencies in Samoan men and fa’afafine. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42, 371–379.Google Scholar
VanderLaan, D. P., & Vasey, P. L. (2014). Evidence of enhanced cognitive biases for maximizing indirect fitness in Samoan fa’afafine. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43, 1009–1022.Google Scholar
VanderLaan, D. P., Gothreau, L. M., Bartlett, N. H., & Vasey, P. L. (2011a). Recalled separation anxiety and gender atypicality in childhood: A study of Canadian heterosexual and homosexual men and women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40, 1233–1240.Google Scholar
VanderLaan, D. P., Gothreau, L. M., Bartlett, N. H., & Vasey, P. L. (2011b). Separation anxiety in feminine boys: Pathological or prosocial? Journal of Gay and Lesbian Mental Health, 15, 30–45.Google Scholar
VanderLaan, D. P., Forrester, D. L., Petterson, L. J. & Vasey, P. L. (2012). Offspring production among the extended relatives of Samoan men and fa’afafine. PLoS ONE, 7(4), e36088.Google Scholar
VanderLaan, D. P., Forrester, D. L., Petterson, L. J., & Vasey, P. L. (2013a). The prevalence of fa’afafine relatives among Samoan men and fa’afafine. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42, 353–359.Google Scholar
VanderLaan, D. P., Ren, Z., & Vasey, P. L. (2013b). Male androphilia in the ancestral environment: An ethnological analysis. Human Nature, 24, 375–401.Google Scholar
VanderLaan, D. P., Vokey, J. R., & Vasey, P. L. (2013c). Is male androphilia familial in non-Western cultures? The case of a Samoan village. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42, 361–370.Google Scholar
VanderLaan, D. P., Petterson, L. J., Mallard, R. W., & Vasey, P. L. (2015a). (Trans)gender role expectations and childcare in Samoa. Journal of Sex Research, 52, 710–720.Google Scholar
VanderLaan, D. P., Petterson, L. J., & Vasey, P. L. (2015b). Elevated childhood separation anxiety: An early developmental expression of heightened concern for kin in homosexual men? Personality and Individual Differences, 81, 188–194.Google Scholar
VanderLaan, D. P., Petterson, L. J., & Vasey, P. L. (2016). Femininity and kin-directed altruism in androphilic men: A test of an evolutionary developmental model. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45, 619–633.Google Scholar
VanderLaan, D. P., Blanchard, R., Zucker, K. J., et al. (2017a). Birth order and androphilic male-to-female transsexualism in Brazil. Journal of Biosocial Science, 49, 527–535.Google Scholar
VanderLaan, D. P., Petterson, L. J., & Vasey, P. L. (2017b). Elevated kin-directed altruism emerges in childhood and is linked to feminine gender expression in Samoan fa’afafine: A retrospective study. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46, 95–108.Google Scholar
Vasey, P. L., & Bartlett, N. H. (2007). What can the Samoan fa’afafine teach us about the Western concept of “gender identity disorder in childhood”? Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 50, 481–490.Google Scholar
Vasey, P. L., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2007). Birth order and male androphilia in Samoan fa’afafine. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 274, 1437–1442.Google Scholar
Vasey, P. L., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2009). Materteral and avuncular tendencies in Samoa: A comparative study of women, men and fa’afafine. Human Nature, 20, 269–281.Google Scholar
Vasey, P. L., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2010a). An adaptive cognitive dissociation between willingness to help kin and non-kin in Samoan fa’afafine. Psychological Science, 21, 292–297.Google Scholar
Vasey, P. L., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2010b). Avuncular tendencies in Samoan fa’afafine and the evolution of male androphila. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 821–830.Google Scholar
Vasey, P. L., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2010c). Monetary exchanges with nieces and nephews: A comparison of Samoan men, women, and fa’afafine. Evolution and Human Behavior, 31, 373–380.Google Scholar
Vasey, P. L., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2012). Male sexual orientation and avuncularity in Japan: Implications for the kin selection hypothesis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41, 209–215.Google Scholar
Vasey, P. L., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2014). Evolving research on the evolution of male androphilia. Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 23, 137–147.Google Scholar
Vasey, P. L., Pocock, D. S., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2007). Kin selection and male androphilia in Samoan fa’afafine. Evolution & Human Behavior, 28, 159–167.Google Scholar
Vasey, P. L., VanderLaan, D.P., Gothreau, L., & Bartlett, N. H. (2011). Traits of separation anxiety in childhood: A comparison of Samoan men, women and fa’afafine. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40, 511–517.Google Scholar
Vasey, P. L., Parker, J. L., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2014). Comparative reproductive output of androphilic and gynephilic males in Samoa. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43, 363–367.Google Scholar
Vasey, P. L., VanderLaan, D. P., Hames, R., & Jaidee, A. (2016). A problematic test of the kin selection hypothesis among the Urak-Lawoi of Ko Lipeh, Thailand: Commentary on Camperio Ciani, Battaglia, & Liotta (2015). Journal of Sex Research, 53, 149–152.Google Scholar
Whitam, F. L. (1992). Bayot and callboy in the Philippines. In Murray, S. O., ed., Oceanic Homosexualities. New York: Garland, pp. 231–248.Google Scholar
Whitam, F. L. (1997). Culturally universal aspects of male homosexual transvestites and transsexuals. In Bullough, B., Bullough, V., & Elias, J., eds., Gender Blending. Amherst, NY: Prometheus, pp. 189–203.Google Scholar
Whitam, F. L., & Mathy, R. M. (1986). Male Homosexuality in Four Societies: Brazil, Guatemala, the Philippines, and the United States. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Wikan, U. (1977). Man becomes woman: Transsexualism in Oman as a key to gender roles. Man, 12, 304–319.Google Scholar
Williams, G. C. (1966). Adaptation and Natural Selection. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Williams, W. (1992). The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture. Boston, MA: Beacon.Google Scholar
Wilson, E. O. (1975). Sociobiology: The New Synthesis. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.Google Scholar
Winkelman, M. (2010). Shamanism: A Biopsychosocial Paradigm of Consciousness and Healing. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.Google Scholar
Winter, S. J. (2006). Thai transgenders in focus: Demographics, transitions and identities. International Journal of Transgenderism, 9, 15–27.Google Scholar
Woodburn, J. (1982). Egalitarian societies. Man, 17, 431–451.Google Scholar
Zheng, L., Lippa, R. A., & Zheng, Y. (2011). Sex and sexual orientation differences in personality in China. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40, 533–541.Google Scholar
Zietsch, B. P., Verweij, K. J. H., Bailey, J. M., Wright, M. J., & Martin, N. G. (2011). Sexual orientation and psychiatric vulnerability: A twin study of neuroticism and psychoticism. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40, 133–142.Google Scholar
Zucker, K. J., Bradley, S. J., & Lowry Sullivan, C. B. (1996). Traits of separation anxiety in boys with gender identity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 791–798.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×