Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rdxmf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T08:39:33.089Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

2 - Cognitive Reserve

from Part I - Models of Cognitive Aging

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 May 2020

By
Eleanna Varangis  and
Yaakov Stern
Edited by
Ayanna K. Thomas  and
Angela Gutchess
Ayanna K. Thomas
Affiliation:
Tufts University, Massachusetts
Angela Gutchess
Affiliation:
Brandeis University, Massachusetts
Get access

Summary

The concept of cognitive reserve was proposed to account for the discrepancy between clinical outcomes and the extent of age-related brain changes, neuropathology, or brain damage. This chapter reviews the concept of cognitive reserve, the methods used to characterize it, and theoretical issues concerning its measurement and utilization. We begin with an overview of the concept of cognitive reserve, how it is distinguished from brain reserve, and how it is defined in current literature. We then explore both epidemiological and neuroimaging evidence supporting the concept of cognitive reserve and review how novel neuroimaging tools are contributing toward our understanding of the mechanisms by which cognitive reserve may operate. We conclude by addressing the future of cognitive reserve and its implications for the field of cognitive aging as a whole.

Keywords

Cognitive reservebrain reservebrain maintenanceAlzheimer’s disease
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Cognitive Aging
A Life Course Perspective
 , pp. 32 - 46
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alexander, G. E., Furey, M. L., Grady, C. L., et al. (1997). Association of premorbid intellectual function with cerebral metabolism in Alzheimer’s disease: Implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(2), 165–172. https://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.154.2.165Google ScholarPubMed
Bennett, D. A., Wilson, R. S., Schneider, J. A., et al. (2003). Education modifies the relation of AD pathology to level of cognitive function in older persons. Neurology, 60(12), 1909–1915. https://dx.doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000069923.64550CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beydoun, M. A., Beydoun, H. A., Gamaldo, A. A., et al. (2014). Epidemiologic studies of modifiable factors associated with cognition and dementia: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health, 14, 643. https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-643CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bozzali, M., Dowling, C., Serra, L., et al. (2015). The impact of cognitive reserve on brain functional connectivity in Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 44(1), 243–250. https://dx.doi.org/10.3233/JAD-141824CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braak, H., & Braak, E. (1997). Diagnostic criteria for neuropathologic assessment of Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiology of Aging, 18(Suppl.4), 85–88. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0197-4580(97)00062-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brickman, A. M., Siedlecki, K. L., Muraskin, J., et al. (2011). White matter hyperintensities and cognition: Testing the reserve hypothesis. Neurobiology of Aging, 32(9), 1588–1598. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2009.10.013Google Scholar
Colangeli, S., Boccia, M., Verde, P., et al. (2016). Cognitive reserve in healthy aging and Alzheimer’s disease: A meta-analysis of fMRI studies. American Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Dementias, 31(5), 443–449. https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1533317516653826Google Scholar
Franzmeier, N., Buerger, K., Teipel, S., et al. (2017a). Cognitive reserve moderates the association between functional network anti-correlations and memory in MCI. Neurobiology of Aging, 50, 152–162. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2016.11.013Google Scholar
Franzmeier, N., Caballero, M. A. A., Taylor, A. N. W., et al. (2017b). Resting-state global functional connectivity as a biomarker of cognitive reserve in mild cognitive impairment. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 11(2), 368–382. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11682-016-9599-1Google Scholar
Gallaway, P. J., Miyake, H., Buchowski, M. S., et al. (2017). Physical activity: A viable way to reduce the risks of mild cognitive impairment, Alzheimer’s disease, and vascular dementia in older adults. Brain Sciences, 7(2), 22. https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci7020022Google Scholar
Giogkaraki, E., Michaelides, M. P., & Constantinidou, F. (2013). The role of cognitive reserve in cognitive aging: Results from the neurocognitive study on aging. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 35(10), 1024–1035. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2013.847906Google Scholar
Guzzetti, S., & Daini, R. (2014). Inter-hemispheric recruitment as a function of task complexity, age and cognitive reserve. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 21(6), 722–745. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2013.874522Google Scholar
Hall, C. B., Derby, C., LeValley, A., et al. (2007). Education delays accelerated decline on a memory test in persons who develop dementia. Neurology, 69(17), 1657–1664. https://dx.doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000278163.82636.30Google Scholar
Hall, C. B., Lipton, R. B., Sliwinski, M., et al. (2009). Cognitive activities delay onset of memory decline in persons who develop dementia. Neurology, 73(5), 356–361. https://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181b04ae3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanyu, H., Sato, T., Shimizu, S., et al. (2008). The effect of education on rCBF changes in Alzheimer’s disease: A longitudinal SPECT study. European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, 35(12), 2182–2190. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00259-008-0848-4Google Scholar
Hultsch, D. F., Hertzog, C., Small, B. J., & Dixon, R. A. (1999). Use it or lose it: Engaged lifestyle as a buffer of cognitive decline in aging? Psychology and Aging, 14(2), 245–263. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.14.2.245Google Scholar
Jefferson, A. L., Gibbons, L. E., Rentz, D. M., et al. (2011). A life course model of cognitive activities, socioeconomic status, education, reading ability, and cognition. Journal of the American Geriatric Society, 59(8), 1403–1411. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2011.03499.xGoogle Scholar
Katzman, R. (1993). Education and the prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology, 43(1), 13–20. https://dx.doi.org/10.1212/wnl.43.1_part_1.13Google Scholar
Katzman, R., Terry, R., DeTeresa, R., et al. (1988). Clinical, pathological, and neurochemical changes in dementia: A subgroup with preserved mental status and numerous neocortical plaques. Annals of Neurology, 23(2), 138–144. https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.410230206CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kemppainen, N. M., Aalto, S., Karrasch, M., et al. (2008). Cognitive reserve hypothesis: Pittsburgh Compound B and fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in relation to education in mild Alzheimer’s disease. Annals of Neurology, 63(1), 112–118. https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.21212Google Scholar
Kennedy, G., Hardman, R. J., Macpherson, H., Scholey, A. B., & Pipingas, A. (2017). How does exercise reduce the rate of age-associated cognitive decline? A review of potential mechanisms. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 55(1), 1–18. https://dx.doi.org/10.3233/JAD-160665Google Scholar
Mortimer, J. A., Snowdon, D. A., & Markesbery, W. R. (2003). Head circumference, education and risk of dementia: Findings from the Nun Study. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25(5), 671–679. https://dx.doi.org/10.1076/jcen.25.5.671.14584Google Scholar
Nyberg, L., Lövdén, M., Riklund, K., Lindenberger, U., & Backman, L. (2012). Memory aging and brain maintenance. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(5), 292–305. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.04.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oh, H., Razlighi, Q., Gazes, Y., Habeck, C., & Stern, Y. (2016). Protective mechanisms of cognitive reserve revealed by multimodal neuroimaging markers. Alzheimer’s and Dementia, 12(7), 81–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2016.06.1941Google Scholar
Park, D. C., & Reuter-Lorenz, P. (2009). The adaptive brain: Aging and neurocognitive scaffolding. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 173–196. https://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093656CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Puente, A. N., Lindbergh, C. A., & Miller, L. S. (2015). The relationship between cognitive reserve and functional ability is mediated by executive functioning in older adults. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 29(1), 67–81. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2015.1005676Google Scholar
Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., & Park, D. C. (2014). How does it STAC up? Revisiting the scaffolding theory of aging and cognition. Neuropsychology Review, 24(3), 355–370. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11065-014-9270-9Google Scholar
Richards, M., & Sacker, A. (2003). Lifetime antecedents of cognitive reserve. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25(5), 614–624. https://dx.doi.org/10.1076/jcen.25.5.614.14581Google Scholar
Roldan-Tapia, L., Garcia, J., Canovas, R., & Leon, I. (2012). Cognitive reserve, age, and their relation to attentional and executive functions. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 19(1), 2–8. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09084282.2011.595458Google Scholar
Satz, P. (1993). Brain reserve capacity on symptom onset after brain injury: A formulation and review of evidence for threshold theory. Neuropsychology, 7(3), 273–295. https://dx.doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.7.3.273CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scarmeas, N., Levy, G., Tang, M. X., Manly, J., & Stern, Y. (2001). Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology, 57(12), 2236–2242. https://dx.doi.org/10.1212/wnl.57.12.2236Google Scholar
Scarmeas, N., & Stern, Y. (2003). Cognitive reserve and lifestyle. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25(5), 625–633. https://dx.doi.org/10.1076/jcen.25.5.625.14576CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scarmeas, N., Zarahn, E., Anderson, K. E., et al. (2003). Association of life activities with cerebral blood flow in Alzheimer disease: Implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis. Archives of Neurology, 60(3), 359–365. https://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archneur.60.3.359Google Scholar
Schofield, P. W., Logroscino, G., Andrews, H. F., Albert, S., & Stern, Y. (1997). An association between head circumference and Alzheimer’s disease in a population-based study of aging and dementia. Neurology, 49(1), 30–37. https://dx.doi.org/10.1212/wnl.49.1.30Google Scholar
Snowdon, D. A. (1997). Aging and Alzheimer’s disease: Lessons from the Nun Study. Gerontologist, 37(2), 150–156. https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geront/37.2.150CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snowdon, D. A., Greiner, L. H., & Markesbery, W. R. (2000). Linguistic ability in early life and the neuropathology of Alzheimer’s disease and cerebrovascular disease: Findings from the Nun Study. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 903(1), 34–38. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2000.tb06347.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sole-Padulles, C., Bartres-Faz, D., Junque, C., et al. (2009). Brain structure and function related to cognitive reserve variables in normal aging, mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiology of Aging, 30(7), 1114–1124. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2007.10.008CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Speer, M. E., & Soldan, A. (2015). Cognitive reserve modulates ERPs associated with verbal working memory in healthy younger and older adults. Neurobiology of Aging, 36(3), 1424–1434. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.12.025CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Staff, R. T., Murray, A. D., Deary, I. J., & Whalley, L. J. (2004). What provides cerebral reserve? Brain, 127(5), 1191–1199. https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/awh144Google Scholar
Steffener, J., Reuben, A., Rakitin, B. C., & Stern, Y. (2011). Supporting performance in the face of age-related neural changes: Testing mechanistic roles of cognitive reserve. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 5(3), 212–221. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11682-011-9125-4Google Scholar
Stern, Y. (2002). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8(3), 448–460. https://dx.doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617702813248Google Scholar
Stern, Y., Albert, S., Tang, M. X., & Tsai, W. Y. (1999). Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation: Cognitive reserve? Neurology, 53(9), 1942–1947. https://dx.doi.org/10.1212/wnl.53.9.1942Google Scholar
Stern, Y., Alexander, G. E., Prohovnik, I., & Mayeux, R. (1992). Inverse relationship between education and parietotemporal perfusion deficit in Alzheimer’s disease. Annals of Neurology, 32(3), 371–375. https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.410320311Google Scholar
Stern, Y., Gazes, Y., Razlighi, Q., Steffener, J., & Habeck, C. (2018). A task-invariant cognitive reserve network. NeuroImage, 178, 36–45. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.05.033Google Scholar
Stern, Y., Gurland, B., Tatemichi, T. K., et al. (1994). Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer’s disease. JAMA, 271(13), 1004–1010. https://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1994.03510370056032Google Scholar
Stern, Y., Tang, M. X., Denaro, J., & Mayeux, R. (1995). Increased risk of mortality in Alzheimer’s disease patients with more advanced educational and occupational attainment. Annals of Neurology, 37(5), 590–595.Google Scholar
Wilson, R. S., Mendes de Leon, C. F., Barnes, L. L., et al. (2002). Participation in cognitively stimulating activities and risk of incident Alzheimer disease. JAMA, 287(6), 742–748. https://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.287.6.742Google Scholar
Xu, W., Tan, L., Wang, H. F., et al. (2016). Education and risk of dementia: Dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Molecular Neurobiology, 53(5), 3113–3123. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12035-015-9211-5Google Scholar
Zahodne, L. B., Glymour, M. M., Sparks, C., et al. (2011). Education does not slow cognitive decline with aging: 12-year evidence from the Victoria Longitudinal Study. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17(6), 1039–1046. https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1355617711001044CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zahodne, L. B., Stern, Y., & Manly, J. J. (2015). Differing effects of education on cognitive decline in diverse elders with low versus high educational attainment. Neuropsychology, 29(4), 649–657. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/neu0000141Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×