This chapter discusses the growth of population in the Indian subcontinent during the period 1757–1947 and the determinants of the observed growth rates – mortality, fertility and migration. Because of the availability of the census data beginning with 1867–72, the discussion for the second part of the period under review has a better empirical basis than the first part. Several estimates have nevertheless been made of the population of the sub-continent or certain states and provinces during the pre-census period. These estimates by the British officials or by scholars can, to some extent, be evaluated on the basis of the implicit growth rates of the population and their plausibility in the light of other evidence relating to wars or internal conflicts, famines and epidemics. Estimates which provide some indication of the composition of the population in terms of sex, broad age-groups or religion can be roughly evaluated in the light of the data on these characteristics reported by the censuses.

When direct evidence on the size, distribution and composition of population is absent, indirect evidence on the rate of growth of population has an important bearing on the interpretation of the economic history of the sub-continent. Rates of population growth have been recognized as an index of the benefits of stable government and peace and prosperity enjoyed by the people. Even otherwise, information on population is necessary basis for planning the supply of various public services. The British officials of the East India Company and their supervisors recognized this fact and repeatedly proposed a census of population in the territories under their jurisdiction in order to plan the judicial system.