When the French writer Simone de Beauvoir visited the United States in 1947, she was deeply saddened by the conformism that seemed so pervasive. “This country, once so passionate about individualism,” she later recalled, “had itself become a nation of sheep; repressing originality, both in itself and in others; rejecting criticism, measuring value by success, it left open no road to freedom except that of anarchic revolt; this explains the corruption of its youth, their refuge in drug-taking and their imbecile outbreaks of violence.” Beauvoir conceded that some books and films pointed to political resistance; and “a few literary magazines, a few almost secret political newsletters” also “dared oppose public opinion.” But such artifacts could gain little traction against “the anti-communist fanaticism of the Americans” which “had never been more virulent. Purges, trials, inquisitions, witch-hunts - the very principles of democracy had been rejected.” The air that she had breathed in the United States had become “polluted.”