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Index

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 August 2022

Khalid Mustafa Medani
Affiliation:
McGill University, Montréal

Summary

Type
Chapter
Information
Black Markets and Militants
Informal Networks in the Middle East and Africa
, pp. 391 - 404
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BYCreative Common License - NCCreative Common License - ND
This content is Open Access and distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/cclicenses/

Index

‘Abbud, Ibrahim, 198
‘Alawi, Ahmed, 159
‘Allam, ‘Fouad, 48
‘Assal, Fathiya, 165
‘udu al-muaid (supporter member stage), 69
‘udu al-multazim (committed member stage), 69
‘udu al-muntassib (upstanding brother stage), 69
‘Umaal Taraheel (migrant workers), 80
Ababa, Addis, 260
abbans (clan-based credit systems), 231
Abdel-Fadil, Mahmoud, 32
Abgal subclan, 223
Abu-Rawash, Wagih Abdelraziq, 167, 173
ahali. See non-government (ahali) Mosques
Ahl al-Sunna Wal Jama’a (People of the Sunna and the Community), 257
Ahmad, ‘Abd Allah, 185
Ahmad, Majdi Mahjoub Mohammad, xviii, 17
AIAI. See al-Ittihad al-Islamic (AIAI)
Aideed, General, 256, 259
Aidid subclan, 223
al-‘Eryan, ‘Issam, 53, 61, 171
al-Atabani, Ghazi Salih al-Dein, 214
Al-Ayyam newspaper, 122
al-Banna, Hassan, 62
Al-Baraka Group, 46
Al-Baraka Investment and Development Company, 110
al-Baraka Islamic bank, 109
Al-Barakaat transfer agency, 128129, 131, 136
al-Bashir regime. See also Sudan
authoritarianism decreasing by, 205207
coup by, 178
legitimacy of, 203
pragmatism of, 199
radical Islamists and, 178180
struggle for political legitimacy by, 215
uprising in 2018 against, 208211
Wanderers movement, 214215
al-Fadil, Abd, 42
al-Faisal, Muhammad, 110, 111
al-Ghazali, Abd al-hamid, 45, 47
al-Ghazzali, Shaykh Mohammad, 44
al-Haj, Ali, 123
al-Hassan, Sabir Muhammad, 185
al-Hudaybi, Hassan, 44
Ali, Jabir Mohammed, 156
Ali, Magdi Mahmoud, 2425
Ali, Mohamed, 269
al-Ittihad al-Islami (AIAI)
as political force, 259
Ethiopia and, 257, 259
hawwalat and, 136
history of, 257258
recruitment, 258259
seen as terrorists, 255
state building and, 245, 246
UIC association with, 256
al-Jabel, Waled, 185
al-Jama’a al-Islamiyya. See Islamic Group (Egypt)
al-Kamil, Shaykh Salih, 109
Alliance for Restoration of Peace and Counter Terrorism, 260
al-Mahdi, abd al Rahman, 96
al-Mahdi, Sadiq, 126127
al-Mirghani, Ali, 96
al-Nashra, 290
al-Nimairi, J’afar, 100102, 107108, 111, 180, See also Sudan
al-proleteriat al-ratha (lumpenproletariate), 275
al-Qaeda network, 128
al-Said, Mustafa, 40
al-Sanussi, Ibrahim, 123
Al-Sayihoon (Wanderers) movement, 214215
al-Sha‘rawi, Sheikh, 44, 48
Al-Shamal Bank, 110
al-Shater, Khairat, 53, 6567, 70, 157158
al-Sisi regime, 155
al-Tilmasani, Omar, 49
al-Turabi, Hassan. See also Muslim Brotherhood (Sudan), See also Sudan
appointment as Attorney General, 101, 123
Islamic Finance House and, 111
military committee member, 123
Muslim Brotherhood leader, 100, 110
Amal hawwalat, 136
Amin, Galal, 29
Annual World Muslim Camp, 124
Ansar Sufi order, 9596
Arab league, Somalia joining of, 141
Arab-Islamic triangle, 202
Ashiqqa’ Party, 99, See also Democratic Unionist Party (DUP)
Association of the People of Assiut, 85
austerity programs. See economic austerity measures
baltagiyya al-‘Ataat (enforcers), 303, 305306
baltagiyya (local strongmen), 8384, 88, 266, 302306
Bank Act of 1982 (Sudan), 111
banking system, formal
competition with black market, 202
deregulation to be more attractive for labor remittances, 51
economic reform and growth of, 37
in Egypt, 30, 31, 161, 162163
in Sudan, 185, 187, 189
loans to currency dealers by, 40
locations of, 113114
banking system, informal (Egypt). See also Islamic Banks, See also Islamic Investment Companies (IICs)
closure of al-Barakat and, 16
currency dealers in, 39
economy and, 27, 3738, 4042, 4950
regulation by social networks, 35
banking system, informal (Somalia)
clans and, 135137
impacts of, 130, 319
importance of, 131
operation of, 135
reciprocity in, 135136
trust networks, 135
war on terrorist finance and, 133
banking system, informal (Somaliland), 236, 249
banking system, informal (Sudan)
labor remittances, 94, 104105, 106, 108
locations of, 113114
Muslim Brotherhood and, 94
Bantus clan, 146
Barakat, Abdel Hamid, 165167
Barre regime. See also Somalia
Arab league and, 141
clan treatment by, 220, 221, 230231
divergent path of Somalia and, 149
fall of, 221222
legalization of black market, 142143, 316
nationalism policy, 230
opposition to, 221222, 231232
weak state and, 139
Bellin, Eva, 30
Bianchi, Robert, 51
Bin Laden, Osama, 110, 179180, 191
black market. See illicit economy/black market
blood feud (Tar), 301
Borama conference, 233
brain drain due to labor migration, 26
Capital Market Authority, 158
casual labor. See informal labor
Central Bank of Egypt (CBE), 161, 162163
central bank, Sudan, 106
charities, 129, See also Islamic Welfare Associations (IWAs)
Chevron, 194
chieftainship practice, 229
China, 194
chivalrous baltagiyya, 303
Christians, 291, 299300, 301, 306
City of Workers, 75
civil society organizations established by Muslim Brother, 123125
civil war in Somalia, 221222, 256
civil war in Sudan, 198200
clan (Qabiliyat) solidarity, in Imbaba, 84
clan system in Somalia. See also specific clans
as variation of state building, 223226
hawwalat reliance on, 130
infighting, 223, 224
intraclan conflicts, 233
Islamist movement and, 134, 258259
labor remittances and, 132, 134137, 144, 254255
state building and, 227
state disintegration and, 228232
subclans (diya-paying groups), 228, 229
CNPC, 194
colonialism
Somalia, 229230
Somaliland, 138, 229
Sudan, 138139
committed member stage (‘udu al-multazim), 69
Communist Party of Sudan (CPS), 99100
Comprehensive Peace Agreement (Sudan), 199
construction coffee houses, 276, 281283
construction workers. See also informal labor
dulabs and, 267, 273, 276281
in Imbaba, 76, 86
labor migration and, 7273
social organization of, 278280
structure similar to Islamic Group, 277281
vulnerability to boom and bust cycles, 271276
Coptic Christians, 291, 299300, 301, 306
cotton industry, 96
Council of Defenders of the Revolution (Council of Forty), 178
CPS (Communist Party of Sudan), 99100
Crenshaw, Martha, 13, 313
currency creation, 247248
currency dealers, 39, 40, 51, See also banking system, informal, See also illicit economy/black market, See also labor remittances
Da’wa, 68
Dahabshil, 134, 136
Darod clan, 136, 137, 230
dawaleeb, 276
DCA (Democratic Alternative Charter), 207
DCIB (Development Cooperative Islamic Bank), 111
Decree 13 (Sudan), 191
Democratic Alternative Charter (DCA), 207
Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), 95
Development Cooperative Islamic Bank (DCIB), 111
devoted member stage (muhib), 69
Diab, Jihan, 32
Digil clan, 137
Dir clan, 137
dispute resolution, 306308
diya-paying groups (subclans), 228, 229
doctrine of Hisba, 283
drugs, view of, 288
dulab (informal construction firms), 267, 273, 276281
DUP (Democratic Unionist Party), 95
economic austerity measures
Egypt, 77
political developments due to, 15
Somalia, 220
Sudan, 180, 185, 203, 204, 206, 209
economy (Egypt)
capital flight, 3738
informal banking system and, 27, 3738, 4042, 4950
informalization of, 3236, 154
internationalization of, 2528, 37, 314
Muslim Brotherhood recruitment changing due to, 172175
reform of, 2832, 35, 3638
economy (Somalia)
crisis in, 142, 147, 220
debt, 141
dependence on foreign aid, 140
remittances as central component of, 132
state disintegration and, 319
unemployment rates, 220
economy (Sudan)
debt, 103
economic reform and, 318
globalization of, 111
inflation, 188, 212
oil boom and, 195, 196, 197
overview, 103106
partition of South Sudan, 212213
unemployment rates, 215216
economy of war, 223
economy, generally, 314, See also banking system, formal
Egal, Muhammad Ibrahim, 233, 237, 246
Egypt. See also banking system, informal (Egypt), See also Imbaba (Egypt), See also informal economy (Egypt), See also informal housing (Egypt), See also Islamic Banks (Egypt), See also Islamic Group (Egypt), See also Islamic Investment Companies (IICs), See also labor remittances (Egypt), See also Mubarak regime, See also Muslim Brotherhood (Egypt), See also Nasser regime, See also patronage (Egypt), See also Sadat regime
as strong state, 3032, 52, 90
centralization by, 169
control over national economy by, 30
currency sources for, 153154
economic reform, 2832, 35, 3638, 49, 317
erosion of state capacity by IICs, 4042
expectations and outcomes in, 3236, 323
GDP, 29, 30, 32, 153154
Imbaba, 7380
informalization of economy and, 3236, 154
internationalization of the economy by, 2528, 37, 314
Islamic economy threatened by, 171
Islamist movement support by, 77, 7879
labor remittance amounts, 23
overview, 2325, 316
patronage in, 31, 49, 6364
political developments due to recession, 16
selection of country for book, xvi
Somalia compared, 141, 149
Sudan compared, 52, 94, 119120
violence by al-Sisi regime, 155
Egyptian Businessmen’s Association, 51
Egyptian Islamic Jihad, 179
Egyptian Saudi Investment Bank (ESIB), 46
electoral system, state changing of, 168
enforcers (baltagiyyat al-‘Ataat), 303, 305306
Enough (Girifna), 215
ESIB (Egyptian Saudi Investment Bank), 46
Ethiopia
al-Ittihad al-Islami and, 257, 259
Somalia and, 230, 259
UIC and, 261
exchange rates, 39
extortion, 83, 303, 305306
Fadil, Abdel, 45, 160
Faisal Islamic Bank (FIB)
growth of, 47, 108110
Islamist movement and, 129
lending policy of, 112
Muslim Brotherhood controlling, 110
staff recruitment and, 115
Faisal Islamic Bank of Sudan (FIBS), 107
familial (Assabiyyat) solidarity, 84
famine in Sudan, 113
Farah, Ahmed Yusuf, 228229
FIB (Faisal Islamic Bank), 46, 47
FIBS (Faisal Islamic Bank of Sudan), 107
Financial Action Task Force (FATF), 129
Food Riots of 1977 (Egypt), 77
Foreign Currency Dealing Act (Sudan), 185
foreign finance, Egypt, 29, 38
formal housing, 34
franco valuta (f.v.) system in Somalia, 142143, 144, 147
Freedom and Justice Party (JFP), 161163
Garowe Conference, 244245
general adherence stage (marhalat al-rabt al-‘am), 68
General Union of Sudanese Students (GUSS), 124
Gezira Cotton Irrigation Scheme, 96
Gilsenan, Michael, 97
Girifna (Enough), 215
globalization
effects of, xvii
internationalization of Egyptian economy, 2528, 37, 314
lack of international recognition of Somaliland, 235237
of Sudan, 111, 124125
political conflict due to, 6
state building and, 227
GNOPC (Greater Nile Operating Petroleum Company), 194
GNP (Gross National Product), 140, 143
Gouda, Mohammed, 162
government Mosques, 288289, See also non-government (ahali) Mosques
Grand Conference of the Northern Peoples of Burao, 232
Greater Nile Operating Petroleum Company (GNOPC), 194
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
Egypt, 29, 30, 32, 153154
Somalia, 131, 143, 147
Sudan, 96, 103, 192193, 195, 206, 212
Gross National Product (GNP), Somalia, 140, 143
guddoon process, 138
GUSS (General Union of Sudanese Students), 124
guurti (national council of clan elders), 233, 242
Hafiz, Selim, 276
Hamdi Triangle Dialectics, 202
Hamdi, Abd al-Rahim, 184, 200202
Harik, Ilya, 31
Hassabo, Tariq, 269270
Hawiye clan, 137
hawwalat. See banking system, informal, See labor remittances
Hilal, Ismail, 165
Hisba doctrine, 283
Husayn, Magdi, 45
I‘tikaf (meditative seclusion), 296297
ICB (Islamic Cooperative Bank of Sudan), 111
IFM (Islamic Finance House), 111
IIBD (International Bank for Investment and Development), 46, 47
IICs. See Islamic Investment Companies (IICs)
Ikhwan, 53, See also Muslim Brotherhood
illicit economy/black market. See also banking system, informal, See also informal labor, See also Islamic Investment Companies (IICs), See also labor remittances, See also local strongmen (baltagiyya)
hawwalat as not, 134
in Somalia, 142143, 253
interdependence with state, 183
National Islamic Front and, 104
resurgence in Sudan, 202208
Imbaba (Egypt). See also Islamic Group (Egypt)
in-migration to, 76, 87
kinship and social networks in, 8487
lack of political voice by, 168169
land speculation in, 8182, 84
map, 325
National Party in, 163164
social and economic history of, 7480
state confrontation with Islamists, 156
Western Mounira, 7374, 76, 7980, 87
Imbaba Youth Association, 75
IMF. See International Monetary Fund (IMF)
indirect rule strategy in Sudan, 94
infitah, 2832, 3738, 50, 154
inflation
Somaliland, 242243, 248
Sudan, 188, 212
informal economy (Egypt). See also banking system, informal (Egypt), See also informal housing (Egypt), See also informal labor, See also Islamic Welfare Associations (IWAs), See also labor remittances (Egypt)
as part of GDP, 32
economic reform and growth of, 3638
expansion of due to labor remittance, 3236
Islamic Group and, 7374
Islamist activism and, 91, 263265
Mubarak regime and, 51
recession and, 263
regulation by social networks, 35
state-society relations altered by, 35
values of transactions in, 32
informal economy (Egypt):, 30
informal economy (Somalia), 219220, See also banking system, informal (Somalia), See also labor remittances (Somalia)
informal economy (Sudan), 93, 181, 218, See also banking system, informal (Sudan), See also labor remittances (Sudan)
informal housing (Egypt)
as heterogeneous, 79
as militancy foundation, 7073
defined, 34
employment opportunities in, 34
growth of, 7073
in Imbaba, 76
labor remittances used for, 25, 3435
militant Islamists and, 263265
regulation by social networks, 35
Sadat regime and, 78
seen as, 176177
informal labor. See also construction workers
as militancy foundation, 7073
defined, 34
formal labor compared, 271
job security, 280281
local strongmen compared, 303
militant Islamists and, 265266, 267270
recession and, 270276, 292
regulation by social networks, 35
social class and, 283, 284
structure similar to Islamic Group, 277281
support for by Islamic Group, 285287
vulnerability to boom and bust cycles, 271276
informal markets, generally. See also illicit economy/black market
politics of, 8, See also banking system, informal, See also /i1headings starting with, See also labor remittances
politics of identity and, 1012
regulation by social networks, 314
typology of, 910
informal unions, in Sudan, 216
informal welfare institutions, 5558, See also Islamic Welfare Associations (IWAs), See also welfare provisioning
inheritance problems, 308
International Bank for Investment and Development (IIBD), 46, 47
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 184
interpersonal trust. See trust networks
Iran, alliance with Sudan, 186
Isaaq clan. See also Somaliland
as major clan, 137
Dahabshil Company, 136
livestock trading, 143
state retribution against, 220, 221, 231
success of, 134
Islamic Banks (Egypt)
demise of, 160163
growth of, 41, 52
Islamic bourgeoisie and, 4950
Islamist movement and, 129
Muslim Brotherhood and, 54
social welfare provisioning and, 56
state capacity and, 4648
Islamic Banks (Sudan)
al-Baraka Islamic bank, 109
as bridges to formal markets, 107111
commercial class built by, 112114, 117
currency dealers and, 108
deregulation of, 107108
failure of, 187
food hoarding by, 113
growth of, 108110
integration of, 110
Islamist movement and, 114125, 129
lending policy of, 112
locations of, 113114
musharaka versus murabaha contracts, 115
purposes of, 112
staff recruitment and, 114115, 116
Islamic bourgeoisie, 4950
Islamic Charter Front, 100
Islamic Cooperative Bank of Sudan (ICB), 111
Islamic Finance House (IFM), 111
Islamic Group (Egypt). see also non-government (ahali) Mosques
capitalization on erosion of traditional authority, 311312
confrontation of by state, 156157
Coptic Christians, conflict with, 291, 299300, 301
debt issues dealt with by, 285
discipline of members, 296297
doctrine of Hisba, 283
dulab and, 277281
employment crisis exploited by, 276
erosion of trust networks and, 283285
in Imbaba, 8089
informal housing and, 70
informal networks and, 7374, 264265
kinship networks and, 300
leaders versus rank and file members, 267269, 281
local strongmen, role of, 302306
Muslim Brotherhood compared, 286, 297, 301
popular support for, 265266
reasons to join, 297298
recession and, 270276
recruitment, 266270, 280, 287, 292, 304
religious education and, 289292, 295
revenue generation, 305306
rivalry, control of, 306308
role of women, 286, 287288
rules of conduct, 296298, 311, 322
sermons, relevance of, 287289
social class and membership, 64
social control by, 8889
support for workers by, 285287
surveillance by police or state security, 309312
tagheer al-munkar (moral degeneration), 87, 298302
violence by, 1314
welfare provisioning, 285287, 288289, 290291
Islamic Group (Sudan), 100
Islamic Investment Companies (IICs)
as pyramid schemes, 43, 159
as state alternative, 46
emergence of, 3840
erosion of state capacity by, 4042
interpersonal trust and, 4243
Islamic bourgeoisie and, 4950
Islamist movement and, 4243, 4546
Muslim Brotherhood and, 54
reasons for success of, 4246
state regulation of, 158160
Islamic Movement for Liberation (IML), 99
Islamic Welfare Associations (IWAs)
erosion of traditional authority, 324
growth of, 14, 36, 56
IICs and, 45
Islamist movement and, 57, 293
militant Islamists and, 266, 321322
numbers of, 56
role of, 14
social welfare provisioning as key factor in, 55
state regulation of, 56
Islamist Authoritarianism. See see al-Bashir regime
Islamist movement (Egypt). See also Muslim Brotherhood (Egypt)
banks as empowering, 47
departure from conventional explanations for, 17
financial base for, 53
IICs and, 4243, 4546
in Imbaba, 76
informal economy and, 91
legitimacy from politics for, 164167
overview of, 8990
Sadat regime and, 77, 78
social class and, 77
social welfare provisioning as key factor in, 5558
support for politicians, 164
Islamist movement (Somalia)
clan system and, 134, 258259, 262
hawwalat and, 136, 320
labor remittances and, 262
militant Islamists and, 257
Islamist movement (Sudan)
factions in, 214
globalization of, 124125
Islamic banking, 114125, 129
parallel economy as threat to, 181184
Sufism and, 9899, 101
Islamist movement, generally
in Puntland, 245, 246, 253
informal markets and, 1012
Islamic Banks and, 129
recruitment, 12
social and economic crisis and, 324
social networks benefitting, xvii, 54, 6065, 315319
state authoritarian and corruption boosting, 169
Sufism and, 9899, 101, 116117
types of, 13
Isma’il, Salah Abu, 44
Ismail, Salwa, 287
JFP (Freedom and Justice Party), 161163
Joma’a, No’man, 164
juvenile delinquency, 288
Kahin, Dahir Riyale, 237
Kamel, Sayed Farouk, 168, 169
Karrar, Babikir, 100
khaliyyas (social morays), 69
Khatmiyya Sufi order, 9596, 112, See also Democratic Unionist Party (DUP)
Khutba (sermons), 287289, 290, 305
kinship. See also clan system in Somalia
importance of, xviiixix
social networks and, xvi, 8487, 300
Krugman, Alan, 312
labor. See informal labor
labor migration (Egypt)
characteristics of people, 2627
factors in, 26
liberalization of, 90
receiving country conditions and, 26
rural/urban divide, 27
Labor Party, 164, 165167
labor remittances (Egypt)
amounts of, 23
construction worker growth due to, 72
economic impacts of, 29
formal banking deregulation to get more of, 51
IICs used for, 159
impacts of, 7
inability of state to regulate, 40
informal economy expansion, 3236, 7172
informal housing created by, 25, 7172
Islamic finance and, 129
methods for, 24
reliance on, 2728
labor remittances (Somalia)
amounts of, 220
by clan, 132, 254255
clan system and, 132, 134137, 144
ethnic politics and, 147
impacts of, xviii, 7, 130134
importance of, 143
Islamist movement and, 262
new companies involved in, 133
opposition to Barre and, 231
state building and, 220, 227
war on terrorist finance and, 128129
labor remittances (Somaliland)
as social safety net, 238, 240241
by clan, 237241
state building and, 237243
labor remittances (Sudan)
amounts of, 185, 188, 192193, 195
economic crisis blamed on, 204
impacts of, 7
Islamic finance and, 102106, 129
Muslim Brotherhood and, 94
recession and, 182
state banking and, 185
labor remittances, generally
boom and bust changes, xvxvi, 6
impacts on local politics, 68
market typology, 9
labor unions, 5051, 75
land speculation, 8182, 84, 159
Law 146 (Egypt, 1998), 158
Law 32 (Egypt, 1977), 29
Law 43 (Egypt, 1974), 29
Law of Appointing Omdas (Qarar Ta’ayeen al’Omid), 310
leftist activism, in Imbaba, 7578
Lewis, I.M. 228, 230
literacy education, 295
livestock trading
decrease in, 220
importance of, 141
parallel economy and, 143144
Somaliland versus Puntland, 250252
trust building and, 243
Local Councils, 309, 323
local strongmen (baltagiyya), 8384, 88, 266, 302306
lumpenproletariate (al-proleteriat al-ratha), 275
Mahdi, Ali, 256
Majerteen. See Puntland (Somalia)
Malik, Hassan, 53, 157
marhalat al-rabt al-‘am (general adherence stage), 68
marital relations, resolution of, 235
market crocodiles (tamasih al-suq), 187
marriages, 291
Masjid al-Nur, structure of, 294
McCormick, B. 35
meditative seclusion (I‘tikaf), 296297
Menkhaus, Ken, 224
Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, 23, See also specific counties
migrant workers (‘Umaal Taraheel), 80
militant Islamists. See also radical Islamists
as global issue, 3
benefits from state and, 319321
capitalism and, 3
causes of, 1112
commonalities with other extremists, 15
comprehensive solution to needed, 324
economic factors in recruitment, 12
informal housing seen as, 176177
Muslim Brotherhood differentiation from, 175
social networks and, xvii
Somalia, 255262, 319
terrorism distinguished from, 1215
Mitchell, Timothy, 81
Modern Forces, 126
money laundering, 134
money management companies (Sharikat Tawzif al-Amwal). See Islamic Investment Companies (IICs)
moral degeneration (tagheer al-munkar), 87, 298302
morality, Muslim Brotherhood membership and, 68
Morgaan, Ali, 82, 85
Morgaan, Mahmoud, 83
Mosques. See government Mosques, See non-government (ahali) Mosques
Mubarak regime
assassination attempt against, 191
business groups, 5051
informal banking system and, 4950
informal housing promoted by, 34
informal markets and, 29, 51
Islamic Banks and, 48
Muslim Brotherhood and, 53, 157158, 170
strength of state under, 52
Mubarak, Jamil, 220
Mudaraba principle, 43
muhib (devoted member stage), 69
murabaha contracts, 115, 189
musharaka contracts, 115
musharaka versus riba, 42, 46, 189
Muslim Brotherhood (Egypt)
bourgeoisie emergence and, 4954
changing political strategy of, 167169
commitment to, 65
coordination with Labor Party, 164
customization of recruitment materials, 62
economic reform in Egypt and, 31, 5253
golden age of, 5970
increasing influence of, 5459
inter-generational tensions, 171
Islamic Banks and, 4748, 161163
Islamic Group compared, 286, 301
Islamic Investment Companies and, 4445
members of, 58, 59, 6365
mobilization strategies, 58, 6067
NDP and, 52, 78
phases of membership, 6870, 171
radical Islamists, differentiation from, 175
recruitment, 170, 171175
Sadat and Mubarek and, 53, 157158
social class and, 6465, 77, 172175, 313
state repression of, 157158
Sufism and, 176
tarbiyya, 6667, 70
Muslim Brotherhood (Somalia), 257
Muslim Brotherhood (Sudan)
additional services by, 99
civil society organizations established by, 123125
coup by, 126127
dominance of state’s financial institutions by, 184, 185
economic transformation and growth of, 117118
emergence of, 99100
growth of, 102
incorporation into state institutions, 119125
Islamic Banks and, 110, 114125, 189190
Islamic Group compared, 297
military, infiltration of, 122123
National Islamic Front and, 101
ostentatious lifestyles of members, 190
political involvement by, 100102
recruitment by, 114125
revolution for national salvation and, 126127
success of, 9293
Sudan Socialist Union, role in, 122
welfare provisioning by, 117
Nafie, Nafie Ali, 207
Nasser regime, 7475, 76
National Congress Party (NCP), 191, 200, 210, 212, See also see al-Bashir regime
National Consensus Forces (NCF), 207
National Cooperative Union (NCU), 111
national council of clan elders (guurti), 233, 242
National Democratic Party (NDP), 52, 78
National Islamic Front (NIF). See also Muslim Brotherhood (Sudan), See also National Congress Party (NCP), See also Sudan
bankruptcy of, 192
becoming National Congress Party, 191
black market and, 104
coup by, 93, 126127
currency dealers and, 108
financial policies, 181
foreign finance, 104
history of, 100
opposition to, 101
popular support for, 183
power of, 180
Revolution Command Council and, 178179
National Memorandum for Peace, 126
National Party (NP), 163164
natural resources, curse of, 196197, 199, 237
NCF (National Consensus Forces), 207
NCP (National Congress Party), 191, 200, 210, 212
NCU (National Cooperative Union), 111
NIF. See National Islamic Front (NIF)
non-government (ahali) Mosques. See also Islamic Group (Egypt)
closure by security forces, 156
erosion of traditional authority, 324
Muslim Brotherhood and, 58, 172
radical Islamists using, 321
role and structure of, 293296
Sadat regime and, 78
sermons, 287289, 290, 305
social welfare provisioning as key factor in, 55
Ogaden clan, 143, 230231
oil boom
informal labor and, 271276
labor migration due to, 26
labor remittances and, xvxvi, 6
Sudan and, 192200, 212
Omdas and Sheiks, 307, 309311
Operation Green Quest, 128130
Osman, Osman Ahmad, 49
ostracism (Ta’zeer), 296297
PAIC (Popular Arab and Islamic Congress), 179
parallel economy. See also banking system, informal, See also hawwalat, See also Islamic Banks, See also labor remittances
becoming threat to Islamic movement, 181184
benefits of, 38
defined, 9
economic reform and, 36
labor remittances as expanding, 33
livestock trading, 141, 143144
Somalia, 140147
partition of South Sudan, 200202, 209, 212213
patronage (Egypt)
extortion and, 83
in Egypt, 49, 6364, 65
in Imbaba, 74, 76
Muslim Brotherhood mobilization and, 6364, 65
politics of in weakened state, 163164
patronage (Somalia), 145146, 149
patronage (Sudan)
oil boom and, 195, 198, 199, 212
partition of South Sudan and, 200
Sufi power and, 94
PCP (Popular Congress Party), 207
PDF (Popular Defense Forces), 178
peace conferences (shir beeleed), 233234, 241
People of the Sunna and the Community (Ahl al-Sunna Wal Jama’a), 257
Political Associations Act (1998, Sudan), 191
Popular Arab and Islamic Congress (PAIC), 179
Popular Congress Party (PCP), 207
Popular Defense Forces (PDF), 178, 186
poverty, impact of, 312313, 323
private Mosques. See non-government (ahali) Mosques
protection (the racket), 226, 266, 298299
Puntland (Somalia)
commercialization of communal and public assets, 254
income, 238239, 248
Islamist identification in, 245, 246, 253
networks of inclusion and exclusion, 253255
Somaliland compared, 224, 246253
state building and, 244253
pyramid schemes, 43, 159
Qarar Ta’ayeen al’Omid (Law of Appointing Omdas), 310
radical Islamists, 6065, 312313, 321, See also al-Bashir regime, See also Islamic Group (Egypt), See also militant Islamists
Rahanwayn clan, 137
Rawabit Iqlimiyya (Regional Associations), 85
real estate profiteering, 8182, 84, 159
recession
informal labor and, 270276, 292
political developments due to, 15
trust network erosion due to, 282, 284
Regional Associations (Rawabit Iqlimiyya), 85
religious education (tarbiyya), 289292, 295
remittances. See labor remittances
rent seeking. See patronage
resource curse, 196197, 199, 237
Revolution Command Council (RCC), 178, 191, See also al-Bashir regime
riba versus musharaka, 42, 46, 189
rural/urban divide, in labor migration, 27
sabi, 277, 279
Sadat regime
business groups, 5051
economic liberalization by, 28, 71
informal banking system and, 4950
informal housing promoted by, 34
Islamist movement and, 55, 77, 78
Muslim Brotherhood and, 53
Sagemen, Marc, 312
Salafist group, 214, 301
Samatar, Abdi, 139
SCN (Sudan Change Now), 215
SDM (Somali Democratic Movements), 222
September Laws in Sudan, 119, 121, 125, 126127
sermons (Khutba), 287289, 290, 305
Shain, Abd al-Sabur, 44
shari’a courts in Somalia, 256
shari’a law, 119, 121, 125, 126127
Sharikat Tawzif al-Amwal (money management companies). See Islamic Investment Companies (IICs)
Sheikh peace conference, 242
shir beeleed (peace conferences), 233234, 241
Singerman, Diane, 59, 156
small firms, informal markets and, 276
SNM (Somalia National Movement), 134, 221222, 231232
social class
conflicts between, 174175
informal labor and, 283, 284
Islamic Bank lending practices and, 115
Islamic militancy and, 176
Islamist movement and, 77
Muslim Brotherhood membership and, 6465, 77
Somalia, 149, 229230
Sudan, 211
social morays (khaliyyas), 69
social networks. See also clan system in Somalia, See also trust networks
downside of, 11
effects of, xvii
extortion and, 84
increasing importance of, 85
informal labor and, 273, 274275
interpersonal trust, IICs and, 4243
Islamic activism and, xvii, 54, 6065, 315319
kinship and, xvi, 8487, 300
non-goverment (ahali) mosques and, 295
regulation of informal markets by, 35
social welfare provisioning. See welfare provisioning
Soliman, Samar, 50, 161
Somali Conference (13th), 260
Somali Democratic Movements (SDM), 222
Somali National Movement (SNM), 231232
Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), 222
Somali Reconciliation and Rehabilitation Council (SSRC), 260
Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF), 137, 222, 230, 244
Somalia. See also banking system, informal (Somalia), See also clan system in Somalia, See also economy (Somalia), See also Islamist movement (Somalia), See also labor remittances (Somalia), See also Puntland (Somalia), See also Somaliland, See also specific clans
as weak state, 139140, 144
austerity programs, 220
civil war in, 221222, 256
debt, 141
dependence on foreign aid, 140
divergent path of, 149
economy of war, 223
Egypt and Sudan compared, 141, 149
Ethiopia and, 259
expectations and outcomes in, 40
franco valuta (f.v.) system, 142143, 144, 147
GDP, 131, 143, 147
history of, 137140, 228230
income distribution, 146
livestock trading, 141, 143144, 220
map, 326
militant Islamists, 255262
origins of state disintegration, 140147
overview, 317
parallel economy in, 140147
patronage in, 145146, 149
political developments due to recession, 16
Puntland, 224
reasons for state collapse, 220223
selection of country for book, xvi
social networks and wealth accumulation, 254255
sources of finance in, 145146
state building, 226227
state disintegration and clan networks, 228232
war on terrorism impacts, 128131, 133, 219220
Xeer, 138139, 228, 229
Somalia National Movement (SNM), 134, 221222, 231232
Somali-Ethiopia war, 230
Somaliland. See also labor remittances (Somaliland)
clans in, 228
colonialism and, 138, 229
commercialization of communal and public assets, 254
income, 237, 238239, 248
inflation, 242243, 248
informal banking system and, 236, 249
informal social networks in, 234235
lack of international recognition of, 235237
multiparty elections versus clan-based system, 224
networks of inclusion and exclusion, 253255
new currency in, 249
Puntland compared, 246253
state building and, 223224, 232235, 236, 237243, 246253
taxation, 240241, 242
unskilled labor market, 254
South Sudan, partition of, 200202, 209, 212213
SPA (Sudanese Professional Association), 210
SPLM (Sudanese People’s Liberation Movement), 103, 198
SPLM-N (Sudan People’s Liberation Movement North), 207
SPM (Somali Patriotic Movement), 222
SRF (Sudanese Revolutionary Forces), 207
SSDF (Somali Salvation Democratic Front), 137, 222, 230, 244
SSRC (Somali Reconciliation and Rehabilitation Council), 260
state building
globalization and, 227
in Puntland (Somalia), 244253
in Somalia, 223227
in Somaliland, 223224, 232235, 236, 237243, 246253
labor remittances and, 227
Tilly, Charles on, 228
trust networks and, 228
war and, 226227, 246
state-society dichotomy, 9, 315319
strongmen. See local strongmen (baltagiyya)
subclans (diya-paying groups), 228, 229
subyan, exploitation of, 267, 280, 302
Sudan. See also al-Bashir regime, See also economy (Sudan), See also informal economy (Sudan), See also Islamic Banks (Sudan), See also labor remittances (Sudan), See also Muslim Brotherhood (Sudan), See also Sufism
al-Ittihad al-Islami and, 257
as weak state, 9497, 98, 119120
austerity programs, 180, 185, 203, 204, 206, 209
black market resurgence, 202208
civil war in, 198200
coercive apparatus of state, 205
consolidation of power, 186187
cotton industry, 96
debt, 192
democratization resistance factors, 205207
Egypt compared, 52, 94, 119120
expectations and outcomes in, 39
famine in, 113
financial reforms in, 184186
foreign finance, 102103
GDP, 96, 103, 192193, 195, 206, 212
heterogeneity of, 92
import-export and, 187, 192
in colonial era, 138139
indebtedness, 103
inflation, 188, 212
interdependence of illicit economy in, 183
International Monetary Fund and, 184
Iran alliance, 186
Islamist Authoritarianism, unraveling of, 211213
lending patterns in, 187, 189
military coup in, 92, 93, 178, 181
military spending in, 197, 204
monetary crisis in, 180
National Memorandum for Peace, 126
oil boom and, 192200
overview, 317
partition of South Sudan, 200202, 209, 212213
peace agreement, 199
political developments due to recession, 16
politics of ethnicity emergence, 198200, 217
protests of 2012, 203204
recruitment of modern Muslims, 99102
regional inequalities in, 103
religious divide in, 94
resource curse in, 196197, 199
Revolution Command Council, 178, 191
revolution for national salvation and, 126127
rising prices in, 209211
Salafist group, 214
sanctions against, 179180, 191
selection of country for book, xvi
shari’a law in, 119, 121, 125, 126127
Somalia compared, 141, 149
struggle for political legitimacy by, 187
uprising in 2018, 208211
Wanderers movement, 214215
youth movement in, 215218
Sudan Change Now (SCN), 215
Sudan People’s Liberation Movement North (SPLM-N), 207
Sudan Socialist Union (SSU), 122
Sudanese Armed Forces, 122123
Sudanese Islamic Bank, 112
Sudanese People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM), 103, 198
Sudanese Professional Association (SPA), 210
Sudanese Revolutionary Forces (SRF), 207
Sufism
Ansar order, 9596
Islamist movement and, 9899, 101, 116117
Khatmiyya order, 9596
Muslim Brotherhood compared, 176
patronage and, 94
politics and, 9799
welfare provisioning and, 117
summer camps in Sudan, 123124
supporter member stage (‘udu al-muaid), 69
surveillance by police or state security, 286, 309312
Ta’zeer (ostracism), 296297
Tadamun Islamic Bank, 110
tagheer al-munkar (moral degeneration), 87, 298302
Taha, Ali Osman, 178, 204
tamasih al-suq (market crocodiles), 187
Tar (blood feud), 301
tarbiyya, 6667, 70
tarbiyya (religious education), 289292, 295
taxation
Islamic Welfare Associations exemption from, 57
Somalia, 139
Somaliland, 240241, 242
Sudan, 105
telecom services industry, 247248
terrorists and terrorism
al-Ittihad al-Islami seen as, 255
failed states and, 319324
failure of, 13
finance of, 128131, 133
Islamist activism distinguished from, 1215
militant Islamists distinguished from, 1215
Somalia, 219220
TFG (Transitional Federal Government), 259260
the racket (protection), 226, 266, 298299
Tilly, Charles, 25, 35, 227, 228
TNA (Transitional National Assembly), 191
Toth, James, 275
Transitional Federal Government (TFG), 259260
Transitional National Assembly (TNA), 191
trust networks. See also social networks
erosion of, 282, 283285
extortion and, 84
IICs and, 4243
Islamic Investment Companies and, 4243
Muslim Brotherhood and, 6162, 63
Somalia hawwalat and, 135
state building and, 228
Tur, Abd al-Rahman ‘Ali, 233
UIC (Union of Islamic Courts), 225
Umma Party, 99, 100101, 110, 207
UN Resolution 1514 (1960), 235
unemployment rates, Sudan, 215216
Union of Islamic Courts (UIC)
al-Ittihad al-Islami, association with, 256
Alliance for Restoration of Peace and Counter Terrorism and, 260
clannism and, 260261
Ethiopia and, 259
success of, 260
takeover of Mogadishu, 225, 255257
unions, 215, 216
United Somali Congress (USC), 222223, 232
United States, war on terrorist finance in Somalia, 128131, 133
University of Gezira student killings, 217
unskilled labor market, 254
upstanding brother stage (‘udu al-muntassib), 69
USC (United Somali Congress), 222223, 232
Wahba, Jackline, 35
Wahdat al-Shabaab al-Islam, 257
Wanderers (Al-Sayihoon) movement, 214215
war
civil war in Somalia, 221222, 256
civil war in Sudan, 198200
economy of war, 223
interstate versus intrastate, 226227
state building and, 226227, 246
war on terrorism
failed states and, 319324
failure of, 13
finance of, 128131, 133
Somalia, 128131, 133, 219220
Waterbury, John, 26, 29, 30
weddings, 291
welfare provisioning. See also Islamic Welfare Associations (IWAs)
in Imbaba, 88
Islamic Banks and, 56
Islamic Group and, 285287, 288289, 290291
Islamic movement and, 5558
people as not relying on state, 173, 323
Sufism supplanted by Muslim Brotherhood, 117
Western Mounira, Imbaba, 7374, 76, 7980, 87, See also Islamic Group (Egypt)
Wickham, Carrie Rosefky, 61
women, role of, 286, 287288
Xeer, 138139, 228, 229
Yusif, Abdullahi, 230, 244245, 259, 260
Zakat
erosion of traditional authority, 324
Islamic Group, 305306
IWAs and, 45, 57
social welfare provisioning and, 56

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  • Index
  • Khalid Mustafa Medani, McGill University, Montréal
  • Book: Black Markets and Militants
  • Online publication: 20 August 2022
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009257749.015
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  • Index
  • Khalid Mustafa Medani, McGill University, Montréal
  • Book: Black Markets and Militants
  • Online publication: 20 August 2022
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009257749.015
Available formats
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  • Index
  • Khalid Mustafa Medani, McGill University, Montréal
  • Book: Black Markets and Militants
  • Online publication: 20 August 2022
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009257749.015
Available formats
×