Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-669899f699-rg895 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-30T17:53:00.454Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

4 - Population genetics

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 August 2009

By
Tom A. Ranker  and
Jennifer M. O. Geiger
Edited by
Tom A. Ranker  and
Christopher H. Haufler
Tom A. Ranker
Affiliation:
Botany Department, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
Jennifer M. O. Geiger
Affiliation:
Department of Natural Sciences, Carroll College, Helena, MT 59625, USA
Tom A. Ranker
Affiliation:
University of Colorado, Boulder
Christopher H. Haufler
Affiliation:
University of Kansas
Get access

Summary

Introduction

William Henry Lang (1923) and Irma Andersson (later Andersson-Kottö; e.g., Andersson, 1923, 1927; Andersson-Kottö, 1929, 1930, 1931) were pioneers in the field of fern genetics. Lang (1923) was the first to demonstrate simple Mendelian inheritance in a fern with his experimental study of the inheritance of entire versus incised leaf margins in Scolopendrium vulgare. Andersson studied inheritance in ferns and was the first to introduce the use of an agar-based growth medium for the experimental study of fern gametophytes (Andersson, 1923). These pioneers paved the way for future explorations of fern and lycophyte population genetics.

In considering how ferns and lycophytes develop and maintain genetic variation, contemporary investigators have used an array of techniques to explore several primary, intertwining topics such as the population genetic implications of reproductive biology (including genetic load), genetic diversity and structure of populations, gene flow and divergence, and the genetics of dispersal and colonization. The goal of this chapter is to review the fern and lycophyte population genetic literature across these broad categories, to provide a synthesis of current knowledge, and to suggest possible future directions of study. We will focus primarily on homosporous taxa because little population genetic research has been conducted on heterosporous taxa.

Population genetics and reproductive biology

An understanding of the reproductive biology of individuals and populations is fundamental for discussing the genetics of populations.

Type
Chapter
Information
Biology and Evolution of Ferns and Lycophytes , pp. 107 - 133
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Andersson, I. (1923). The genetics of variegation in a fern. Journal of Genetics, 13, 1–11.Google Scholar
Andersson, I. (1927). Note on some characters in ferns subject to Mendelian inheritance. Hereditas, 9, 157–168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andersson-Kottö, I. (1929). A genetical investigation in Scolopendrium vulgare. Hereditas, 12, 109–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andersson-Kottö, I. (1930). Variegation in three species of ferns. Zeitschrift für induktive Abstammungs-und Vererbungs Lehre, 56, 115–201.Google Scholar
Andersson-Kottö, I. (1931). The genetics of ferns. Bibliographica Genetica, 8, 269–294.Google Scholar
Aragón, C. E. and Pangua, E. (2003). Gender determination and mating system in the autotetraploid fern Asplenium septentrionale (L.) Hoffm. Botanica Helvetica, 113, 181–193.Google Scholar
Atkinson, L. R. and Stokey, A. G. (1964). Comparative morphology of the gametophyte of homosporous ferns. Phytomorphology, 14, 51–70.Google Scholar
Baker, H. G. (1955). Self-compatibility and establishment after ‘long-distance’ dispersal. Evolution, 3, 347–349.Google Scholar
Baker, H. G. (1967). Support for Baker's Law – as a rule. Evolution, 4, 853–856.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chiou, W.-L., Farrar, D. R., and Ranker, T. A. (1998). Gametophyte morphology and reproductive biology in Elaphoglossum Schott. Canadian Journal of Botany, 76, 1967–1977.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chiou, W.-L., Farrar, D. R., and Ranker, T. A. (2002). The mating systems of some Polypodiaceae species. American Fern Journal, 92, 65–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clague, D. A. (1996). The growth and subsidence of the Hawaiian-Emperor volcanic chain. In The Origin and Evolution of Pacific Island Biotas, New Guinea to Eastern Polynesia: Patterns and Processes, ed. Keast, A. and Miller, S. E.. Amsterdam: SPB Academic Publishing, pp. 35–50.Google Scholar
Cousens, M. I. (1979). Gametophyte ontogeny, sex expression, and genetic load as measures of population divergence in Blechnum spicant. American Journal of Botany, 66, 116–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cousens, M. I., Lacey, D. G., and Kelly, E. M. (1985). Life history studies of ferns: a consideration of perspective. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 86B, 371–380.Google Scholar
Crist, K. C. and Farrar, D. R. (1983). Genetic load and long distance dispersal in Asplenium platyneuron. Canadian Journal of Botany, 61, 1809–1814.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crow, J. and Kimura, M. (1965). Evolution in sexual and asexual populations. The American Naturalist, 99, 439–450.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dobzhansky, T. (1970). Genetics of the Evolutionary Process. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Dobzhansky, T. and Wright, S. (1941). Genetics of natural populations. V. Relations between mutation rate and accumulation of lethals in populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura. Genetics, 26, 23–51.Google ScholarPubMed
Eastwood, A., Cronk, Q. C. B., Vogel, J. C., Hemp, A., and Gibby, M. (2004). Comparison of molecular and morphological data on St Helena: Elaphoglossum. Plant Systematics and Evolution, 245, 93–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flinn, K. M. (2006). Reproductive biology of three fern species may contribute to differential colonization success in post-agricultural forests. American Journal of Botany, 93, 1289–1294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gastony, G. J. and Gottlieb, L. D. (1982). Evidence for genetic heterozygosity in a homosporous fern. American Journal of Botany, 69, 634–637.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gastony, G. J. and Gottlieb, L. D. (1985). Genetic variation in the homosporous fern Pellaea andromedifolia. American Journal of Botany, 72, 257–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gitzendanner, M. A. and Soltis, P. S. (2000). Patterns of genetic variation in rare and widespread plant congeners. American Journal of Botany, 87, 783–792.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greer, G. K (1993). The influence of soil topography and spore-rain density on gender expression in gametophyte populations of the homosporous fern Aspidotis densa. American Fern Journal, 83, 54–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamrick, J. L. and Godt, M. J. W. (1990). Allozyme diversity in plant species. In Plant Population Genetics, Breeding, and Genetic Resources, ed. Brown, A. H. D., Clegg, M. T., Kahler, A. L., and Weir, B. S.. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer, pp. 43–63.Google Scholar
Haufler, C. H. (1985). Enzyme variability and modes of evolution in the fern genus Bommeria. Systematic Botany, 10, 92–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haufler, C. H. (1987). Electrophoresis is modifying our concepts of evolution in homosporous Pteridophytes. American Journal of Botany, 74, 953–966.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haufler, C. H. (1992). An introduction to fern genetics and breeding systems. In Fern Horticulture: Past, Present and Future Perspectives, ed. Ide, J. M., Jermy, C., and Paul, A. M.. Andover: Intercept, pp. 145–155.Google Scholar
Haufler, C. H. (2002). Homospory 2002: an odyssey of progress in pteridophyte genetics and evolutionary biology. Bioscience, 52, 1081–1093.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haufler, C. H. and Soltis, D. E. (1984). Obligate outcrossing in a homosporous fern: field confirmation of a laboratory prediction. American Journal of Botany, 71, 878–881.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haufler, C. H. and Soltis, D. E. (1986). Genetic evidence suggests that homosporous ferns with high chromosome numbers are diploid. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 83, 4389–4393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haufler, C. H., Windham, M. D., and Ranker, T. A. (1990). Biosystematic analysis of the Cystopteris tennesseensis (Dryopteridaceae) complex. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 77, 314–329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hauk, W. D. and Haufler, C. H. (1999). Isozyme variability among cryptic species of Botrychium subgenus Botrychium (Ophioglossaceae). American Journal of Botany, 86, 614–633.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hedrick, P. W. (1987). Population genetics of intragametophytic selfing. Evolution, 41, 137–144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hey, J. (2006). Recent advances in assessing gene flow between diverging populations and species. Current Opinion in Genetics and Development, 16, 592–596.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hickok, L. G. (1978a). Homoeologous chromosome pairing: frequency differences in inbred and intraspecific hybrid polyploid ferns. Science, 202, 982–984.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hickok, L. G. (1978b). Homoeologous chromosome pairing and restricted segregation in the fern Ceratopteris. American Journal of Botany, 65, 516–521.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holderegger, R. and Schneller, J. J. (1994). Are small isolated populations of Asplenium septentrionale variable? Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 51, 377–385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holsinger, K. E. (1987). Gametophytic self-fertilization in homosporous plants – development, evaluation, and application of a statistical-method for evaluating its importance. American Journal of Botany, 74, 1173–1183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holsinger, K. E. (1990). The population genetics of mating system evolution in homosporous plants. American Fern Journal, 80, 153–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holsinger, K. E. (1991). Mass-action models of plant mating systems: the evolutionary stability of mixed mating systems. The American Naturalist, 138, 606–622.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hooper, E. A. and Haufler, C. H. (1997). Genetic diversity and breeding system in a group of neotropical epiphytic ferns (Pleopeltis; Polypodiaceae). American Journal of Botany, 84, 1664–1674.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ishikawa, H., Motomi, I., Watano, Y., and Kurita, S. (2003). Electrophoretic evidence for homoeologous chromosome pairing in the apogamous fern species Dryopteris nipponensis (Dryopteridaceae). Journal of Plant Research, 116, 165–167.Google Scholar
Kang, M., Ye, Q., and Huang, H. (2005). Genetic consequence of restricted habitat and population decline in endangered Isoetes sinensis (Isoetaceae). Annals of Botany, 96, 1265–1274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keiper, F. J. and McConchie, R. (2000). An analysis of genetic variation in natural populations of Sticherus flabellatus [R. Br. (St John)] using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers. Molecular Ecology, 9, 571–581.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirkpatrick, R. E. B., Soltis, P. S., and Soltis, D. E. (1990). Mating system and distribution of genetic variation in Gymnocarpium dryopteris ssp. disjunctum. American Journal of Botany, 77, 1101–1110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klekowski, E. J. Jr. (1969). Reproductive biology of the Pteridophyta. II. Theoretical considerations. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 62, 347–359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klekowski, E. J. Jr. (1970a). Populational and genetic studies of a homosporous fern – Osmunda regalis. American Journal of Botany, 57, 1122–1138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klekowski, E. J. Jr. (1970b). Reproductive biology of the Pteridophyta. IV. An experimental study of mating systems in Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. Journal of the Linnean Society, Botany, 63, 153–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klekowski, E. J. Jr. (1971). Ferns and genetics. Bioscience, 21, 317–322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klekowski, E. J. Jr. (1972a). Genetical features of ferns as contrasted to seed plants. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 59, 138–151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klekowski, E. J. Jr. (1972b). Evidence against genetic self-incompatibility in the homosporous fern Pteridium aquilinum. Evolution, 26, 66–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klekowski, E. J. Jr. (1973). Genetic load in Osmunda regalis populations. American Journal of Botany, 60, 146–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klekowski, E. J., Jr. (1979). The genetics and reproductive biology of ferns. In The Experimental Biology of Ferns, ed. Dyer, A. F.. London: Academic Press, pp. 133–170.Google Scholar
Klekowski, E. J. Jr. (1988). Mutation, Developmental Selection, and Plant Evolution. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Klekowski, E. J., Jr. and Baker, H. G. (1966). Evolutionary significance of polyploidy in the Pteridophyta. Science, 153, 305–307.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lande, R. and Schemske, D. W. (1985). The evolution of self-fertilization and inbreeding depression in plants. I. Genetic models. Evolution, 39, 24–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lang, W. H. (1923). On the genetic analysis of a heterozygotic plant of Scolopendrium vulgare. Journal of Genetics, 13, 167–175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leimu, R., Mutikainen, P., Koricheva, J., and Fischer, M. (2006). How general are positive relationships between plant population size, fitness and genetic variation? Journal of Ecology, 94, 942–952.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, J. and Haufler, C. H. (1994). Phylogeny, biogeography, and population biology of Osmunda species: insights from isozymes. American Fern Journal, 85, 105–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, J. W. and Haufler, C. H. (1999). Genetic variation, breeding systems, and patterns of diversification in Hawaiian Polypodium (Polypodiaceae). Systematic Botany, 24, 339–355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lloyd, R. M. (1974). Mating systems and genetic load in pioneer and non-pioneer Hawaiian Pteridophyta. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 69, 23–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lloyd, R. M. and Warne, T. R. (1978). The absence of genetic load in a morphologically variable sexual species, Ceratopteris thalictroides (Parkeriaceae). Systematic Botany, 3, 20–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lott, M. S., Volin, J. C., Pemberton, R. W., and Austin, D. F. (2003). The reproductive biology of the invasive ferns Lygodium microphyllum and L. japonicum (Schizaeaceae): implications for invasive potential. American Journal of Botany, 90, 1144–1152.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maki, M. and Asada, Y.-J. (1998). High genetic variability revealed by allozymic loci in the narrow endemic fern Polystichum otomasui (Dryopteridaceae). Heredity, 80, 604–610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masuyama, S. (1979). Reproductive biology of the fern Phegopteris decursive-pinnata. I. The dissimilar mating systems of diploids and tetraploids. Botanical Magazine (Tokyo), 92, 275–289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masuyama, S. and Watano, Y. (1990). Trends for inbreeding in polyploid pteridophytes. Plant Species Biology, 5, 13–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masuyama, S., Mitui, K., and Nakato, N. (1987). Studies on intraspecific polyploids of the fern Lepisorus thunbergianus. (3) Mating system and the ploidy. Journal of Japanese Botany, 62, 321–331.Google Scholar
McCauley, D. E., Whittier, D. P., and Reilly, L. M. (1985). Inbreeding and the rate of self-fertilization in a grape fern, Botrychium dissectum. American Journal of Botany, 72, 1978–1981.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muller, H. J. (1950). Our load of mutations. The American Journal of Human Genetics, 2, 111–176.Google ScholarPubMed
Nei, M. (1973). Analysis of gene diversity in subdivided populations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 70, 3321–3323.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nei, M. (1977). F-statistics and analysis of gene diversity in subdivided populations. Annals of Human Genetics, 41, 225–233.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nei, M. (1978). Estimation of average heterozygosity and genetic distance from a small number of individuals. Genetics, 89, 583–590.Google ScholarPubMed
Otto, S. P. and Marks, J. C. (1996). Mating systems and the evolutionary transition between haploidy and diploidy. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 57, 197–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pangua, E. and Vega, B. (1996). Comparative study of gametophyte development in Cosentinia and Anogramma (Hemionitidaceae) and Cheilanthes (Sinopteridaceae). In Pteridology in Perspective, ed. J. M. Camus, M. Gibby, and R. J. John. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens, pp. 497–508.
Peck, J. H., Peck, C. J., and Farrar, D. R. (1990). Comparative life history studies and the distribution of pteridophyte populations. American Fern Journal, 80, 126–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pérez-García, B. and Riba, R. (1998). Bibliografía sobre Gametofitos de Helechos y Plantas Afines. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden, Vol. 70, ed. V. C. Hollowell. St. Louis, MO: Missouri Botanical Garden Press.
Price, J. P. and Clague, D. A. (2002). How old is the Hawaiian biota? Geology and phylogeny suggest recent divergence. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological Sciences, 269, 2429–2435.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pryor, K. V., Young, J. E., Rumsey, F. J., Edwards, K. J., Bruford, M. W., and Rogers, H. J. (2001). Diversity, genetic structure and evidence of outcrossing in British populations of the rock fern Adiantum capillus-veneris using microsatellites. Molecular Ecology, 10, 1881–1894.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quintanilla, L. G., Pangua, E., Amigo, J., and Pajarón, S. (2005). Comparative study of the sympatric ferns Culcita macrocarpa and Woodwardia radicans: sexual phenotype. Flora, 200, 187–194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rabinowitz, D. (1981). Seven forms of rarity. In The Biological Aspects of Rare Plant Conservation, ed. Synge, H.. Chichester: Wiley, pp. 205–217.Google Scholar
Ranker, T. A. (1987). Experimental systematics and population biology of the fern genera Hemionitis and Gymnopteris with reference to Bommeria. Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS.
Ranker, T. A. (1992a). Genetic diversity, mating systems, and interpopulation gene flow in neotropical Hemionitis palmata L. (Adiantaceae). Heredity, 69, 175–183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ranker, T. A. (1992b). Genetic diversity of endemic Hawaiian epiphytic ferns: implications for conservation. Selbyana, 13, 131–137.Google Scholar
Ranker, T. A. (1994). Evolution of high genetic variability in the rare Hawaiian fern Adenophorus periens and implications for conservation management. Biological Conservation, 70, 19–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ranker, T. A. and Houston, H. A. (2002). Is gametophyte sexuality in the lab a good predictor of sexuality in nature? Sadleria as a case study. American Fern Journal, 92, 112–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ranker, T. A., Floyd, S. K., and Trapp, P. G. (1994). Multiple colonizations of Asplenium adiantum-nigrum onto the Hawaiian Archipelago. Evolution, 48, 1364–1370.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ranker, T. A., Gemmill, C. E. C., Trapp, P. G., Hambleton, A., and Ha, K. (1996). Population genetics and reproductive biology of lava-flow colonising species of Hawaiian Sadleria (Blechnaceae). In Pteridology in Perspective, ed. Camus, J. M., Gibby, M., and John, R. J.. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens, pp. 581–598.Google Scholar
Ranker, T. A., Gemmill, C. E. C., and Trapp, P. G. (2000). Microevolutionary patterns and processes of the native Hawaiian colonizing fern Odontosoria chinensis (Lindsaeaceae). Evolution, 54, 828–839.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
St. John, E. P. (1949). The evolution of the Ophioglossaceae of the eastern United States. Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences, 12, 207–219.Google Scholar
Schneider, H., Ranker, T. A., Russell, S. J., Cranfill, R., Geiger, J. M. O., Aguraiuja, R., Wood, K. R., Grundmann, M., Kloberdanz, K., and Vogel, J. C. (2005). Origin and diversification of the Hawaiian fern genus Diellia Brack. (Aspleniaceae, Polypodiidae). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological Sciences, 272, 455–460.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneller, J. J. (1979). Biosystematic investigations on the Lady Fern (Athyrium filix-femina). Plant Systematics and Evolution, 132, 255–277.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneller, J. J. (1996). Outbreeding depression in the fern Asplenium ruta-muraria L: evidence from enzyme electrophoresis, meiotic irregularities and reduced spore viability. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 59, 281–295.Google Scholar
Schneller, J. J. and Holderegger, R. (1996). Genetic variation in small, isolated fern populations. Journal of Vegetation Science, 7, 113–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sciarretta, K. L., Arbuckle, Potter E., Haufler, C. H., and Werth, C. R. (2005). Patterns of genetic variation in southern Appalachian populations of Athyrium filix-femina var. asplenioides (Dryopteridaceae). International Journal of Plant Science, 166, 761–780.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slatkin, M. (1985a). Gene flow in natural populations. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 16, 393–430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slatkin, M. (1985b). Rare alleles as indicators of gene flow. Evolution, 39, 53–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slatkin, M. and Barton, N. H. (1989). A comparison of three indirect methods for estimating average levels of gene flow. Evolution, 43, 1349–1368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soltis, D. E., and Soltis, P. S. (1986). Electrophoretic evidence for inbreeding in the fern Botrychium virginianum (Ophioglossaceae). American Journal of Botany, 73, 588–592.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soltis, D. E., and Soltis, P. S. (1987a). Breeding system of the fern Dryopteris expansa: evidence for mixed-mating. American Journal of Botany, 74, 504–509.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soltis, D. E., and Soltis, P. S. (1987b). Polyploidy and breeding systems in homosporous Pteridophyta: a reevaluation. The American Naturalist, 130, 219–232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soltis, P. S., and Soltis, D. E. (1987c). Population structure and estimates of gene flow in the homosporous fern Polystichum munitum. Evolution, 41, 620–629.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soltis, P. S. and Soltis, D. E. (1988a). Genetic variation and population structure in the fern Blechnum spicant (Blechnaceae) from western North America. American Journal of Botany, 75, 37–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soltis, P. S. and Soltis, D. E. (1988b). Estimated rates of intragametophytic selfing in lycopods. American Journal of Botany, 75, 248–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soltis, P. S. and Soltis, D. E. (1990a). Genetic variation within and among populations of ferns. American Fern Journal, 80, 161–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soltis, P. S. and Soltis, D. E. (1990b). Evolution of inbreeding and outcrossing in ferns and fern-allies. Plant Species Biology, 5, 1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soltis, D. E., and Soltis, P. S. (1992). The distribution of selfing rates in homosporous ferns. American Journal of Botany, 79, 97–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soltis, P. S., Soltis, D. E., and Holsinger, K. E. (1988a). Estimates of intragametophytic selfing and interpopulational gene flow in homosporous ferns. American Journal of Botany, 75, 1765–1770.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soltis, P. S., Soltis, D. E., and Noyes, R. D. (1988b). An electrophoretic investigation of intragametophytic selfing in Equisetum arvense. American Journal of Botany, 75, 231–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soltis, P. S., Soltis, D. E., and Ness, B. D. (1989). Population genetic-structure in Cheilanthes gracillima. American Journal of Botany, 76, 1114–1118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soltis, P. S., Soltis, D. E., and Wolf, P. G.. (1990). Allozymic divergence and species relationships in North American Polystichum (Dryopteridaceae). Systematic Botany, 15, 205–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stebbins, G. L. (1957). Self fertilization and population variability in the higher plants. The American Naturalist, 91, 337–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stokey, A. G. and Atkinson, L. R. (1958). The gametophyte of the Grammitidaceae. Phytomorphology, 8, 391–403.Google Scholar
Su, Y., Wang, T., Zheng, B., Jiang, Y., Chen, G., and Gu, H. (2004). Population genetic structure and phylogeographical pattern of a relict tree fern, Alsophila spinulosa (Cyatheaceae), inferred from cpDNA atpB-rbcL intergenic spacers. Theoretical and Applied Genetics, 109, 1459–1467.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suter, M., Schneller, J. J., and Vogel, J. C. (2000). Investigations into the genetic variation, population structure, and breeding systems of the fern Asplenium trichomanes subsp. quadrivalens. International Journal of Plant Science, 161, 233–244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swofford, D. L. and Selander, R. B. (1989). BIOSYS-1. A computer program for the analysis of allelic variation in population genetics and biochemical systematics, Release 1.7. Urbana, IL: Illinois Natural History Survey.Google Scholar
Tryon, R. M. and Tryon, A. F. (1982). Ferns and Allied Plants. New York: Springer-Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vitalis, R., Riba, M., Colas, B., Grillas, P., and Olivieri, I. (2002). Multilocus genetic structure at contrasted spatial scales of the endangered water fern Marsilea strigosa Willd. (Marsileaceae, Pteridophyta). American Journal of Botany, 89, 1142–1155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vogel, J. C., Rumsey, F. J., Russell, S. J., Cox, C. J., Holmes, J. S., Bujnoch, W., Starks, C., Barrett, J. A., and Gibby, M. (1999). Genetic structure, reproductive biology and ecology of isolated populations of Asplenium csikii (Aspleniaceae, Pteridophyta). Heredity, 83, 604–612.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vos, P., Hogers, R., Bleeker, M., Reijans, M., Vandelee, T., Hornes, M., Frijters, A., Pot, J., Peleman, J., Kuiper, M., and Zabeau, M. (1995). AFLP: a new technique for DNA fingerprinting. Nucleic Acids Research, 23, 4407–4414.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallace, B. (1970). Genetic Load – Its Biological and Conceptual Aspects. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Watano, Y. (1988). High levels of genetic divergence among populations in a weedy fern, Pteris multifida Poir. Plant Species Biology, 3, 109–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watano, Y., and Masuyama, S. (1991). Inbreeding in natural populations of the annual polyploid fern Ceratopteris thalictroides (Parkeriaceae). Systematic Botany, 16, 705–714.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watano, Y., and Sahashi, N. (1992). Predominant inbreeding and its genetic consequences in a homosporous fern genus, Sceptridium (Ophioglossaceae). Systematic Botany, 17, 486–502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Werth, C. R. and Cousens, M. I. (1990). Summary: the contributions of population studies on ferns. American Fern Journal, 80, 183–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Werth, C. R., Guttman, S. I., and Eshbaugh, W. H. (1985). Electrophoretic evidence of reticulate evolution in the Appalachian Asplenium complex. Systematic Botany, 10, 184–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolf, P. G., Haufler, C. H., and Sheffield, E. (1988). Electrophoretic variation and mating system of the clonal weed Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn (Bracken). Evolution, 42, 1350–1355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolf, P. G., Sheffield, E., and Haufler, C. H. (1990). Genetic attributes of bracken as revealed by enzyme electrophoresis. In Bracken Biology and Management, ed. Thomson, J. A. and Smith, R. T.. Hawthorn, Victoria: Australian Institute of Agriculture and Science, Occasional Paper Number 40, pp. 71–78.Google Scholar
Wolf, P. G., Sheffield, E., and Haufler, C. H. (1991). Estimates of gene flow, genetic substructure and population heterogeneity in bracken (Pteridium aquilinum). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 42, 407–423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, S. (1931). Evolution in Mendelian populations. Genetics, 16, 97–159.Google ScholarPubMed
Wright, S. (1943). Isolation by distance. Genetics, 28, 114–138.Google ScholarPubMed
Wright, S. (1951). The genetical structure of populations. Annals of Eugenics, 15, 323–354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wright, S. (1965). The interpretation of population structure by F-statistics with special regard to systems of mating. Evolution, 19, 395–420.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, S. (1969). Evolution and the Genetics of Populations, Vol. 2, The Theory of Gene Frequencies. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Wright, S. (1978). Evolution and the genetics of populations, Vol. 4, Variability within and among natural populations.Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

  • Population genetics
    • By Tom A. Ranker, Botany Department, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA, Jennifer M. O. Geiger, Department of Natural Sciences, Carroll College, Helena, MT 59625, USA
  • Edited by Tom A. Ranker, University of Colorado, Boulder, Christopher H. Haufler, University of Kansas
  • Book: Biology and Evolution of Ferns and Lycophytes
  • Online publication: 11 August 2009
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511541827.005
Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

  • Population genetics
    • By Tom A. Ranker, Botany Department, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA, Jennifer M. O. Geiger, Department of Natural Sciences, Carroll College, Helena, MT 59625, USA
  • Edited by Tom A. Ranker, University of Colorado, Boulder, Christopher H. Haufler, University of Kansas
  • Book: Biology and Evolution of Ferns and Lycophytes
  • Online publication: 11 August 2009
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511541827.005
Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

  • Population genetics
    • By Tom A. Ranker, Botany Department, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA, Jennifer M. O. Geiger, Department of Natural Sciences, Carroll College, Helena, MT 59625, USA
  • Edited by Tom A. Ranker, University of Colorado, Boulder, Christopher H. Haufler, University of Kansas
  • Book: Biology and Evolution of Ferns and Lycophytes
  • Online publication: 11 August 2009
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511541827.005
Available formats
×