Index

Dana M. Moss

doi:10.1017/9781009272148.012

Index

Abu Salim Massacre, 50–52, 96

Ahrar al-Sham, 8

Akhbar Libya (newspaper), 51

Alawites, 102, 124, 214

Al-Salaam (newspaper), 64

Amazigh, 47–48, 51–53, 185, See also Libyan Tamazight Congress, Tmazight language, World Amazigh Conference

American Association of Yemeni Scientists and Professionals, 69, 83, 131

American Libyan Freedom Alliance, 51

Amnesty International, 204

Arab Congress, first, 56

Arab Spring uprising

authoritarian responses to, 8

beginnings, 6–7, 93

and conflict transmission, 95

and emergence of diaspora activism, 2, 9, 94

and Libyan exiles, 9, 45

Libyan regime responses to, 96–97, 113

and mobilizing structures, 116

and Syrian dissent, 101–102

and Syrian exiles, 10, 45

Syrian regime responses to, 101–102

and Yemeni dissent, 109–110

and Yemeni exiles, 11, 45

Yemeni regime responses to, 109

Arab Workers League, 66

Arab Workers Union, 65

Arab-Israeli war, 45, 57

Assad, Bashar al-, 8

attempts at “reform”, 59

Assad, Hafez al-, 57

authoritarian regimes

durability of, 2

transnational nature of, 35

Baʻath Party, 57

Barada TV, 180–181

Ben Ali, Zine El Abidine, 6

British Solidarity for Syria, 149, 159

broadcasting, 153, 176

and awareness raising, 142

challenges to, 139–140

demonstrations, 141–142, 144, 146–147, 154, 176, 220

as diaspora activity, 14, 26

as response to propaganda, 141

use of social media, 140–142

brokering, 14, 26, 155–156, 158, 185

#ChicagoGirl (documentary), 159

Caesar file, 150

Cameron, David, 211, 219

capital conversion, 175, 183–184, 187, 190–191, 221–222

Center for Political and Strategic Studies, 119

chemical weapon attacks (in Syria), 8, 150, 163, 194, 213–214, 231

Christians (as minority), 44, 56, 124, 152

coalitions, 51

of Alawis, 57

and demonstrations, 127, 134

as horizontal networks, 32

Leftist, 211

pan-Arab, 231

revolutionary, 39, 95–96

transnational, 68

collective identity, 37

Committee for the Defense of Yemen, 64

conflict transmission, 5, 22–23, 25, 71, 94

Arab Spring effects on, 95

and home-country ties, 35

among Libyan diaspora, 86

and political engagement, 26

among post-Arab Spring Syrian diaspora, 120–123, 126

among post-Arab Spring Yemeni diaspora, 96

and quotidian disruptions, 26

among Syrian diaspora, 86–87

and voice, 31

among Yemeni diaspora, 87

Damascus Declaration (2005), 60

Damascus Spring, 75, 80

Day of Rage (Libya), 7, 96

Day of Rage (Yemen), 109

diaspora activism, 14, 96, 224

and alternative loyalties, 37

and collective identity, 37

and conflict transmission, 26

challenges to, 37

changes over time, 26–27

effectiveness of, 19, 41

emergence of, 2

and fatigue, 15

and financial support, 11

as fragmenting experience, 15

and geopolitical support, 27–28, 40, 42, 45, 202–203

and Global War on Terror, 20, 203

and home-country influence, 13

and home-country mass movements, 39

and home-country ties, 12, 46, 175–177

humanitarian efforts of, 21

and patronage, 174

and proxy punishment, 75

pace of, 26

paradoxes of, 14–16, 45–46

and quotidian disruptions, 26

and sense of helplessness, 15

and shared experience, 37

social science view of, 3

sustained revolution, effects of, 18

and transnational repression, 25

transnational aspects of, 32

US vs. Great Britain factors, 19–20, 23

variation by home country, 27–29

diaspora members

home-country ties of, 34

and home-country uprisings, 14

isolation of, 82

mobilization dynamics of, 34

privileged positionality of, 12, 14

resources for activism, 11

social construction of identity of, 230

surveillance of, 75–76, 79, 81–83

as transnational subjects, 35

diaspora mobilization. See diaspora activism

diaspora movements

changes over time, 95

factors for effectiveness, 40

and international organizations, 32

and loyalty, 32

and regime change, 5

as transnational networks, 32

diaspora, definition of, 3

Eid, Kassim, 146, 158, 213

Enough Gaddafi!, 10, 53, 113–115, 140, 155, 176, 210

exile

and voice, 13

exit. See also Hirschman, Albert

and revolution, 3

and voice, 5, 13, 16, 22, 33–34, 42, 95, 224, 226, 228

Exit, Voice, and Loyalty (Hirschman), 3

external animation, 42

Fares, Raed, 157

Federation of Syrian American Societies, 55

FirstStep (TV series), 61

Free Generation Movement, 164, 208

Free Libya Army, 97, 167

Free Syrian Army, 121–122, 150, 156, 167–168, 211, 216

Free Yemen Movement, 64

FREE-Syria, 153, 217

Friday of Dignity Massacre, 7, 109–112, 126, 218

and Yemeni mobilization, 135

Gaddafi Khalas! (Enough Gaddafi!). See Enough Gaddafi!

Gaddafi, Muammar al-, 7, 47–48

death of, 7

early resistance to, 49–50

and Western rapprochement, 52–53, 84

Gaddafi, Saif al-Islam, 53

reforms of, 81, 84–85, 113

response to Arab Spring uprisings, 97

geopolitical support, 22

challenges to, 203–204, 211, 215, 217

and diaspora activism, 27, 40, 42, 45, 202–203

and Global War on Terror, 216, 220

of home-country, 232

of host country, 19, 22–23, 38–39, 200, 212

and Islamic extremism, 214–217, 220

and Libyan revolution, 206–207

and media attention, 209–210, 212, 221

and NATO, 208

NGOs, 204, 207, 213, 221

and resource conversion, 42

and Syrian revolution, 212, 218

of third-party states, 208–209, 212–213, 218

and UN Human Rights Council, 211

and UN Security Council, 220

and voice, 31, 222

and Yemeni revolution, 219

Global War on Terror, 1, 20, 45

and diaspora activism, 203

and geopolitical support, 216, 220

groupness, 29, 231

guarded advocacy, 104

Gulf Cooperation Council Agreement, 219–220

Hama Massacre (1982), 58

Hezbollah, 8

Hirschman, Albert, 3, 13, 31

home-country mass movements, 39

home-country ties, 35

and conflict transmission, 35

and diaspora activism, 175–178

of diaspora members, 11–12

as hindrance to mobilization, 38

and remitting, 177

and transnational repression, 22, 35

Human Rights Watch, 205

humanitarian work, 21

immigrants

1.5 generation, 19

second generation, 11–12, 23, 54, 60, 79–80, 84, 86, 113

indigenous organizations, 46

International Criminal Court, 204

Islamic extremism, 214–217, 220

Islamic Relief, 221

Islamic State (ISIS), 216

and Syrian revolution, 214–215, 217

and Syrian war, 8

Syrian diaspora opposition to, 150

Jamahiriyya, 48

Justice4Libya, 51

Karam Foundation, 194, 196

Kurdish independence, 59, 125–126

Kurdistan, 59, 125

Kurds, 5, 25, 57, 71, 86–87, 125, 130

Leftist groups, 231

anti-war, 231

lethal retribution

effects on diaspora communities, 74

as transnational repression, 72–74

Libya

dissident groups, 51

history of, 47–48

pre-Arab Spring activism, 50–52, 54

under Gaddafi regime, 48–50, 52–53

Libya AlHurra, 160

Libya Human and Political Development Forum, 51

Libya Link, 186, 208

Libya Outreach, 141, 148

Libya Watanona (Our Homeland Libya), 51

Libya Watch, 50, 53, 61, 75, 77–78, 116

Libya Women’s Association, 54

Libya Youth Movement, 140, 176

LibyaFeb 17 (website), 141

Libyan American Association of Ohio, 160

Libyan Association of Southern California, 54, 80, 117

Libyan British Relations Council, 149, 206

Libyan Constitutional Union, 74

Libyan diaspora

community-building efforts, 54–55

divisions among activists, 115

and Global War on Terrorism, 52

isolation among, 79

migration of, 49

mobilization of, 113–115

motivations for activism, 97, 99–100

and promotion of Amazigh culture, 51

and reintegration efforts of regime, 53

responses to Arab Spring, 9–10

responses to reforms, 84–85

student political engagement, 99

unity of against regime, 115

and Western rapprochement, 52

Libyan diaspora activism

as auxiliary force for rebellion, 170

advisory efforts, 185–187

and broadcasting demonstrations, 141

brokering efforts of, 155

and capital conversion, 183–184

coordination of home-country groups, 159

demonstrations, 143

divisions among, 115

joining Free Libya Army, 167

and legal aid, 186, 188

lobbying efforts of, 148–149

and military advice, 187

and NTC, 148

and quotidian disruptions, 136

remitting efforts of, 160–161, 184

and social capital, 184–185

use of social media, 140

use of television broadcasting, 153

volunteer efforts on the ground, 164–165, 167, 187

Libyan Emergency Task Force, 98, 100, 148, 190, 207–208

Libyan Human Rights Commission, 51, 82

Libyan Humanitarian Action, 160

Libyan Islamic Fighting Group, 50, 52, 81

Libyan Martyrs Militia, 167

Libyan regime

counter-mobilization efforts of, 100–101

reintegration efforts of, 53

Libyan revolution

and diaspora activism, 112–115

and geopolitical support, 206–207

and media attention, 209–210

and NATO, 208

and NGO support, 207

and politicization of diaspora groups, 117

and third-party states, 208–209

and UN Security Council, 208

Libyan Tamazight Congress, 52

Libyan Transitional Council, 160

Libyan Women’s Association, 82

Libyan Women’s Union, 117

lobbying, 148–150, 170, 190

and voice, 149, 152

Local Coordination Committees, 153

long-distance nationalism, 37, 56, 70, 96, 225

loyalty, 40, 55

and diaspora movements, 32

and voice, 3, 13, 31, 33, 96

Malta

as hub for activism, 161, 183, 187, 232

Maram Foundation, 195

Marx, Karl, 30

Matar, Hisham, 74

methodological nationalism, 226

Middle East and North Africa (MENA)

social science view of, 1, 16

Middle Easterner immigration, 44, 203

minorities, ethnic

Alawites, 102, 124, 214

Amazigh, 47–48, 51–53, 185

Christians, 44, 56, 124, 152

Kurds, 5, 25, 57, 71, 86–87, 125, 130

Tuareg, 48

mobilizing structures, 116

Mubarak, Hosni, 7

Mukhtar, Omar al-, 8

Muslim Brotherhood, 60, 86

and conflict transmission among Syrian diaspora, 122–124

in Libya, 50, 116

in Yemen, 63

Nabbous, Mohammed, 8

National Association of Syrian and Lebanese American Federations, 56

National Board of South Yemen, 68, 90

National Conference for the Libyan Opposition, 51, 141

National Front for the Salvation of Libya, 49

National Independence Party of Syria, 56

National Liberation Army (Libya), 114

National Liberation Front, 65

National Salvation Front, 60

National Syrian American Expatriate group, 105

National Transitional Council, 113–114, 206, 210

and activist advisory efforts, 185

broadcasting of, 153

and capital conversion, 184

formation of, 97

Libyan diaspora support of, 148

lobbying efforts of, 148

recognition of as legitimate government, 206

and Responsibility to Protect doctrine, 185

volunteering of, 167

NATO, 208

negative coalitions, 95

network ties. See home-country ties

New Syria Party, 56

norm brokerage, 12

Obama, Barack, 149, 151, 208, 211, 213, 219

One Hundred Thousand Names Project, 146

online activism, 7, 13–14, 26, 82, 97–98, 104, 138, 141–142, 148

People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen, 63

permanent exile, 76, 82

positionality, political, 14, 232

Power, Samantha, 10, 146, 158, 208

Proclamation of Principles for the Free Syrian Army, 163

professionalization of activism, 192–193

protests, 143

proxy punishment, 75, 77

Public International Law and Policy Group, 163

Qatar

as hub for activism, 21, 142, 153, 163

quotidian disruptions

Arab Spring uprising as, 25

and climate change, 227

and conflict transmission, 26

definition of, 94

and diaspora activism, 26, 94

and Libyan diaspora activism, 136

and Syrian diaspora activism, 136

and voice, 22, 31, 38, 42, 96, 224

Rabita Shamal Afriqiya, 51

red line policy, 213

Red Lines (documentary), 213

regionalism. See conflict transmission

remittances. See remitting

remitting. See also capital conversion

as diaspora activity, 27

and home-country ties, 177

and Libyan diaspora activism, 160–161

and Syrian diaspora activism, 161–162

and Yemeni diaspora activism, 163

representation

as diaspora activity, 14, 26

resource conversion, 22, 174, See also capital conversion

challenges to, 41, 203

and diaspora activism, 14, 40–41, 203

differences in, 175

and geopolitical support, 42

and political action, 31

types of, 175

resource mobilization. See resource conversion

Responsibility to Protect doctrine, 185, 190, 206, 229

Rethink Rebuild Society, 142, 217

Return, The (memoir), 74

Revolutionary Committees (Libya), 48

Saleh, Ali Abdullah, 7, 63

Saudi Arabia

as hub for activism, 159

and Yemeni politics, 87

scholarship restrictions, 76, 82

Shaam News Network, 154

Sheikh Abdullah al-Hakimi, 64

simultaneity, 35

social capital, 184–185, 187, 190–191, 199–200

and voice, 201

social media, 154–155, 176

and awareness raising, 142

and broadcasting demonstrations, 141–142

and Libyan diaspora activism, 140

and responses to propaganda, 141

and Syrian diaspora activism, 142, 154–155, 176

and Yemeni diaspora activism, 142

social remittances, 12, 40

Solidarity for Syria, 194

South Yemen, 19, 26, 37, 65–68, 88, 90, 127, 135

South Yemen Association, 130

South Yemeni American Association, 68, 83

Southern Democratic Assembly, 67, 129

Supreme Council of the Syrian Revolution, 122

Sykes-Picot Agreement, 56

Syria Campaign, The (Twitter), 142

Syria Future Current Party, 125

Syria Justice and Accountability Centre, 217

Syria Parliamentary Affairs Group, 150

Syria Relief, 196

Syrian American Council, 61, 80–81, 118, 149, 157, 190

conflict with diaspora activists, 118

politicization of, 119

and Syrian revolution, 118

Syrian American Council (SAC), 60

Syrian American Engineers Association, 162

Syrian American Federation of New York, 56

Syrian American Medical Society, 120, 216

Syrian British Medical Society, 120

Syrian Center for Political and Strategic Studies, 61, 163

Syrian Christians for Democracy, 194

Syrian Christians for Peace, 152

Syrian diaspora

community-building efforts of, 62

and conflict transmission, 86–87

and Damascus Declaration, 60

divisions among, 86, 108

early activism of, 56

early anti-regime activism of, 60

early migration of, 55–56

emigration to Israel, 57

and first Arab Congress, 56

guarded advocacy of, 104

and Hama Massacre, 58

isolation of, 79

and Kurdish divisions, 125–126

mobilization of, 108, 117–119, 126

motivations for activism, 101, 105–108

and neutrality of groups, 121

post-Arab Spring divisions among, 121–125

racial discrimination of, 55–56

religious discrimination of, 55

responses to Bashar regime, 60

social costs of activism, 107

socioeconomic status of, 190

and transnational repression, 95, 103–104

use of media, 60–61

Syrian diaspora activism

advisory efforts, 162–163, 168, 190

and broadcasting demonstrations, 141, 146, 154, 176

brokering efforts of, 156, 158

coordination of home-country groups, 159–160, 167

demonstrations of, 143–144, 146

disillusionment of, 215–216

financial struggles of, 194, 196

fundraising efforts of, 190

home-country ties, challenges of, 178–181

humanitarian efforts of, 168

joining Free Syria Army, 168

lobbying efforts of, 149–150, 170, 190

and media representation, 154

opposition to ISIS, 150

professionalization of, 192–195, 197

and quotidian disruptions, 136

remitting efforts of, 161–162

and social capital, 190

specialization of, 194–196

teach-ins, 142

use of social media, 142, 154–155, 176

use of television broadcasting, 153

volunteer efforts on the ground, 167–169, 217

waning of, 191

Syrian Emergency Task Force, 149–150, 190, 193, 213

Syrian exiles

responses to Arab Spring, 10

Syrian Expatriates Organization, 179

Syrian Human Rights Committee, 123

Syrian Justice and Development Party, 60, 86, 117, 154, 180

Syrian Legal Development Programme, 217

Syrian National Coalition, 153

Syrian National Council, 121, 153

Syrian Nonviolence Movement, 142, 167, 195

Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, The, 61

Syrian Parliamentary Affairs Group, 194

Syrian revolution

beginnings, 102

and challenges to geopolitical support, 215

characterization as civil war, 211

and diaspora activism, 117–119

effects on diaspora activism, 95

and geopolitical support, 211, 218

and home-country support, 211

and ISIS, 214–215, 217

and Islamic extremism, 214, 216

and media support, 212

militarization of, 211

and politicization of diaspora groups, 119

and refugee crisis, 218

and third-party states, 212–213, 218

and UN Human Rights Council, 211, 215

US v. British support, 212

Syrian Revolution Coordinators Union, 122

Syrian Revolution General Commission, 122

Syrian Support Group, 156, 161, 215

Syrian War, 8

teach-ins, 142

technology

and transnational activism, 30

and transnational repression, 36

Terbil, Fathi, 7

Tharwa Foundation, 61, 117, 119, 163

The Suriya el-Fetat (Young Syria Party), 56

The Yemen Peace Project, 17

third-party states, 208–209, 212–213, 218

transnational activism

of diaspora groups, 13

episodic nature of, 34

and global capitalism, 30

and technological advances, 30

and voice, 22

transnational advocacy networks, 179, 197, 226

transnational network ties, 175

transnational perspective, 225–227

and methodological nationalism, 226

transnational repression, 5, 22–23, 25, 35, 226

Arab Spring effects on, 94

by Assad regime, 72, 74, 76, 80–81

and fear among diaspora, 76–78

by Gaddafi regime, 72–75, 77, 81–82

and home-country ties, 22, 35

and horizontal voice, 36

historical examples of, 36

and isolation of diaspora members, 36

and lethal retribution, 72–74

of post-Arab Spring Syrian diaspora, 95, 103–104, 108

of post-Arab Spring Yemeni diaspora, 95

and political engagement, 25

and technology, 36

and voice, 31, 36, 71, 79, 83–84, 94, 112

by Yemeni regime, 83

transnational turn, the, 31, 33

Tuareg, 48

Tunisia

as hub for activism, 160–161, 183, 209, 232

Tunisian revolution, 2, 10, 93, 109

Turkey

as hub for activism, 21, 162–163, 204, 213, 218

and Kurdish repression, 125

and Syrian refugees, 10, 191

UN Human Rights Council

and Syrian revolution, 211, 215

UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 213

UN Security Council, 206

condemnation of Yemeni regime, 220

and Libyan revolution, 208

United Arab Republic, 57

United Nations Human Rights Council, 204

voice, 248, 251–252, 254

conditions for use of, 34

definition of, 33

deterrents to, 34, 36

differences in, 29

and exile, 4, 13

and exit, 5, 13, 16, 22, 33–34, 42, 95, 224, 226, 228

and external animation, 42

and geopolitical support, 31, 222

and geopolitics, 45

and home-country reforms, 228

limits of, 40

and lobbying, 149, 152

and loyalty, 3, 13, 31, 33, 96

obstacles to, 94

opportunities, 70

and quotidian disruptions, 22, 31, 38, 42, 96, 225

and shared identity, 37

shifts in, 170

and social capital, 201

threats to, 36

and transnational activism, 22

and transnational repression, 39, 71, 79, 83–84, 94, 112

and transnational ties, 92

voice, horizontal, 33, 230

and quotidian disruptions, 38

and transnational repression, 36

voice, vertical, 33, 143, 173

and quitidian disruption, 38

and transnational repression, 36

volunteering

as diaspora activity, 14, 27

and Libyan diaspora activism, 164–165, 167, 187

and Syrian diaspora activism, 167–168, 217

and Yemeni diaspora activism, 169

Western Kurdistan Association, 59, 125

women’s activism, 54, 82, 112, 117, 141, 146, 156, 159–160, 185, 209

World Amazigh Conference, 53

World Medical Camp for Libya, 161, 209

Yemen

civil wars, 63

early history of, 63

reunification of, 63

under Ottoman rule, 63

Yemen Forum Foundation, 69, 91, 200

Yemen Refugee Organization, 69

Yemeni American Association of Bay Ridge, 69

Yemeni Arab Association, 67

Yemeni Arab Spring, 17

Yemeni Association of Scientists and Professionals, 91

Yemeni Benevolent Society, 67

Yemeni civil war

and divisions among diaspora, 88, 90

as obstacle to mobilization, 126–128

Yemeni Community Associations, 67, 69, 88–91, 131–133

political insularity of, 133

Yemeni diaspora

community-building efforts of, 68–69

divisions among, 67, 87, 89–91, 95

early activism of, 64

early discrimination of, 64

early emigration of, 64

early financial remittances of, 66

and home-country families, 65

financial support of NLF, 65

mobilization of, 83, 87–88, 91, 110

motivations for activism, 110–111

obstacles to mobilization, 126–128

and pro-secession groups, 67

political insulation of existing organizations, 131–132

post-Arab Spring divisions among, 130, 134

post-World War II emigration, 65

pre-Arab Spring activism, 68

use of media, 65

and Yemen civil war, 63

Yemeni diaspora activism

and broadcasting demonstrations, 142, 147, 220

brokering efforts of, 158

demonstrations of, 146–147

failed potential of, 172

home-country ties, challenges of, 181, 200

host-country lack of support of, 220

and lack of trust, 134

lobbying efforts of, 152

and media representation, 155

as non-political, 135

and photo exhibits, 143

and politicization of organizations, 132

remitting efforts of, 163

resistance to formalization, 197, 199

resource limitations of, 199

and social capital, 199–200

selective nature of, 170, 172

use of social media, 142

volunteer efforts on the ground, 169

Yemeni exiles

responses to Arab Spring, 11

Yemeni Immigrants General Union, 67

Yemeni Migrant Workers Organization, 69

Yemeni regime

relative weakness of, 83

Yemeni revolution

and diaspora activism, 126

and geopolitical support, 219–220

and Islah party, 129

and Islamic extremism, 220

southern Yemeni opposition to, 126–130, 134–135

Yemeni Welfare Association of Manchester, 66

Yemeni Workers’ Union, 66

Yemeni Youth Abroad for Change, 152, 155

Yemeni Youth Association, 70

Zakarya, Qusai, 146, 158, 213

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