Al-mutamar al-watani al-‘am al-Libya [Libyan National Congress]. 2014. “Qanoon r’qm 10 al-sana 2014” [Law No. 10 of 2014].Google Scholar

Aarts, Paul and Cavatorta, Francesco. 2013. “Civil Society in Syria and Iran.” In Aarts, and Cavatorta, (eds.), Civil Society in Syria and Iran. Boulder, CO and London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, pp. 1–17.Google Scholar

Abdelrahman, Maha. 2004. Civil Society Exposed: The Politics of NGOs in Egypt. London & New York: I.B. Tauris.Google Scholar

Abdelrahman, Maha. 2009. “With the State? Sometimes With the Islamists? Never!” The British Journal of Middle East Studies, 36, 1: 37–54.Google Scholar

Abdelrahman, Maha. 2012. “A Hierarchy of Struggles? The ‘Economic’ and the ‘Political’ in Egypt’s Revolution.” Review of African Political Economy, 39, 134: 614–28.Google Scholar

Abdelrahman, Maha. 2015. “In Praise of Organization: Egypt between Activism and Revolution.” Development & Change, 44, 3: 569–85.Google Scholar

Abdel-Samad, Mouna. 2014. “Why Reform Not Revolution: A Political Opportunity Analysis of Morocco 2011 Protest Movement.” The Journal of North African Studies, 19, 5: 792–809.Google Scholar

Abdul-ahad, Ghaith. 2013. “Yemen’s Dream of a Civil Society Suffocated by Tribalism.” The Guardian Weekly, February 14. https://bit.ly/392gh26Google Scholar

Abdulatif, Naeima Faraj A. 2013. Working Women and their Rights in the Workplace: International Human Rights and Its Impact on Libyan Law. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wollongong, Australia (May).Google Scholar

Abouzzohour, Yasmina and Beatriz, Tomé-Alonso. 2019. “Moroccan Foreign Policy After the Arab Spring: A Turn for the Islamists or Persistence of Royal Leadership?” Journal of North African Studies, 24, 3: 444–67.Google Scholar

Acemoglu, Daron and Robinson, James. 2001. “A Theory of Political Transitions.” American Economic Review, 91, 4: 938–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Acemoglu, Daron and Robinson, James. 2006. Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Acemoglu, Daron, Johnson, Simon, Robinson, James, and Yared, Pierre. 2005. “From Education to Democracy?” American Economic Review, 95, 2: 44–9.Google Scholar

Acemoglu, Daron, Johnson, Simon, Robinson, James, and Yared, Pierre. 2008. “Income and Democracy.” American Economic Review, 98, 3: 808–42.Google Scholar

Achcar, Gilbert. 2013. The People Want: A Radical Exploration of the Arab Uprising. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Action on Armed Violence. 2018. “UK Arms Exports to the UAE.” October 4. https://aoav.org.uk/2018/uk-arms-exports-to-the-uae/Google Scholar

Adesnik, David A. and Kim, Sunhyuk. 2008. “If at First You Don’t Succeed: The Puzzle of South Korea’s Democratic Transition.” Stanford University: CDDRL Working Papers, No. 83 (July). https://cddrl.fsi.stanford.edu/publications/if_at_first_you_dont_succeed_the_puzzle_of_south_koreas_democratic_transitionGoogle Scholar

AFTURD. 2006. Egalité dans l’Héritage: Pour une citoyenneté pleine et entière. Vol. 1: Histoire, Droits et Sociétés; vol. 2: Plaidoyer pour l’Egalité dans l’Héritage. Tunis: AFTURD.Google Scholar

Agence France Press. 2017. “Tunisians Demand Change to Muslim Marriage Decree.” March 27. https://bit.ly/396H5P6Google Scholar

Ahmed, Dunya Ahmed Abdullah. 2010. “Bahrain.” In Kelly, Sonja and Breslin, Julia (eds.), Women’s Rights in the Middle East and North Africa: Progress amid Resistance. NY and Lanham: Freedom House and Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, pp. 59–87.Google Scholar

Ali, Nadje al-. 2000. Secularism, Gender and the State in the Middle East: The Egyptian Women’s Movement. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Alexander, Jeffrey. 2006. The Civil Sphere. NY and Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Aleya-Sghaier, Amira. 2014. “The Tunisian Revolution, the Revolution of Dignity.” In Laremont, Ricardo Rene (ed.), Revolution, Revolt and Reform in North Africa: The Arab Spring and Beyond. London: Routledge, pp. 30–52.Google Scholar

Algusbi, Ebtisam. 2019. “The Women’s Movement and the Situation of Women in Countries where Popular Uprisings Have Transformed into Armed Conflict: The Case of Libya.” In Al-Atiyat, Ibtesam (ed.), Gender Justice and the Uprisings in the Arab World: Gendered Citizenship, Gender Equality, and Women’s Mobilization in Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Lebanon, Bahrain, and the Islamic State. Proceedings of a workshop at the American University of Beirut, 2017.Google Scholar

Allam, Nermin. 2018. Women and the Egyptian Revolution: Engagement and Activism During the 2011 Arab Uprisings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Alley, April Longely. 2013. “Tracking the Arab Spring: Yemen Changes Everything … and Nothing.” Journal of Democracy, 24, 4: 74–85.Google Scholar

Almond, Gabriel. 1989. “Review Article: The International-National Connection.” British Journal of Political Science, 19, 2: 252–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Al Jazeera. 2011a. “Bahrain Doles Out Money to Families.” February 12. www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/02/201121251854857192.htmlGoogle Scholar

Al Jazeera. . 2011b. “Yemeni Youth Say Factions ‘Hijacked’ Uprising.” November 23. www.aljazeera.com/video/middleeast/2011/11/201111211751266112.htmlGoogle Scholar

Altan-Olcay, Ozlem and Icduygu, Ahmet. 2012. “Mapping Civil Society in the Middle East: The Cases of Egypt, Lebanon and Turkey.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 39, 2: 157–79.Google Scholar

Althusser, Louis. 1971. Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. New York: Monthly Review Press.Google Scholar

Alvarez, Sonia. 1990. Engendering Democracy in Brazil: The Women’s Movements in Transition Politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Alvarez-Ossorio, Ignacio. 2012. “Syria’s Struggling Civil Society: The Syrian Uprising.” Middle East Quarterly, 19, 2 (Spring): 23–32.Google Scholar

Amnesty International. 2013. “Egypt: Gender-Based Violence against Women around Tahrir Square.” London: Amnesty International Publications.Google Scholar

Amnesty International. . 2018. “Libya: Women Human Rights Defenders Still Under Attack, Four Years after Activist’s Assassination.” June 25. https://bit.ly/3910bpAGoogle Scholar

Anderson, Lisa. 1990. “Tribe and State: Libyan Anomalies.” In Khoury, Philip S. and Kostiner, Joseph (eds.), Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East. Berkley, CA: University of California Press, pp. 288–302.Google Scholar

Anderson, Lisa. 2011. “Demystifying the Arab Spring.” Foreign Affairs, 90 (May/June): 2.Google Scholar

Anderson, Lisa. 2018. “Bread, Dignity and Social Justice: Populism in the Arab World.” Philosophy and Social Criticism, 44, 2: 479–90.Google Scholar

Andrew, Merrindahl. 2010. “Women’s Movement Institutionalization: The Need for New Approaches.” Politics & Gender, 6, 4 (December): 609–16.Google Scholar

Angelovski, Ivan and Marzouk, Lawrence. 2017. “Revealed: The Pentagon Is Spending Up to $2.2 Billion on Soviet-Style Arms for Syrian Rebels.” Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project, September 12. www.occrp.org/en/makingakilling/the-pentagon-is-spending-2-billion-on-soviet-style-arms-for-syrian-Google Scholar

Anheier, Helmut, Glasius, Marlies, and Kaldor, Mary (eds.). 2001. The Global Civil Society Handbook. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Arat, Yesim. 1994. “Toward a Democratic Society: The Women’s Movement in Turkey in the 1980s.” International Women’s Studies Forum, 17: 241–8.Google Scholar

Arato, Andrew. 1981. “Civil Society against the State: Poland 1980–81.” Telos, 47 (Spring): 23–47.Google Scholar

Arfaoui, Khedija and Moghadam, Valentine M. 2016. “Violence against Women and Tunisian Feminism: Advocacy, Policy, and Politics in an Arab Context.” Current Sociology, 64, 4 (July): 637–53.Google Scholar

Assaad, Ragui and Roudi-Fahimi, Farzaneh. 2007. “Youth in the Middle East and North Africa: Demographic Opportunity or Challenge?” Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau. www.prb.org/youthinmena/Google Scholar

Associated Press. 2013. “Timeline of key events in Syrian uprising.” September 4. www.politico.com/story/2013/09/syria-timeline-096270Google Scholar

Associated Press. 2018. “Egypt’s Leader Says Arab Spring Uprising Was Ill-Advised.” November 5. https://bit.ly/3lVJvngGoogle Scholar

ATFD. 2010. “Declaration: Women’s Rights in Tunisia. Summary of Key Concerns Submitted by the Association tunisienne des femmes democrats (ATFD) to the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, 4th Session” (October).Google Scholar

Atassi, Karim. 2018. Syria: The Strength of an Idea. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Ayoob, Mohammed. 1995. The Third World Security Predicament: State Making, Regional Conflict, and the International System. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar

Babar, Zahra. 2017. “The ‘Enemy Within’: Citizenship-Stripping in the Post-Arab Spring GCC. Middle East Journal, 74, 4 (Autumn): 525–43.Google Scholar

Baron, Adam. 2019. “Foreign and Domestic Influences in the War in Yemen.” Proxy Wars Project Conflict Studies. https://publishing.vt.edu/site/books/10.21061/proxy-wars-baron/download/2827/Google Scholar

Barro, Robert J. 1999. “Determinants of Democracy.” Journal of Political Economy, 107: 158–83.Google Scholar

Bayat, Asef. 2006. “The Political Economy of Social Policy in Egypt.” In Karshenas, Massoud and Moghadam, Valentine M. (eds.), Social Policy in the Middle East: Economic, Political, and Gender Dynamics. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan and UNRISD, pp. 109–34.Google Scholar

Bayat, Asef. 2010. Life as Politics: How Ordinary People Change the Middle East. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Bayat, Asef. 2013. “The Arab Spring and Its Surprises.” Development and Change, 44, 3: 587–601.Google Scholar

Bayat, Asef. 2017. Revolution without Revolutionaries: Making Sense of the Arab Spring. Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Beblawi, Hazem and Luciani, Giacomo. 1987. The Rentier State. London: Croom Helm.Google Scholar

Becker, Jaime and Goldstone, Jack A.. 2005. “How Fast Can You Build a State? State Building in Revolutions.” In Lange, Matthew and Rueschemeyer, Dietrich (eds.), State and Development: Historical Antecedents of Stagnation and Advance. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 183–210.Google Scholar

Beinin, Joel. 2010. The Struggle for Workers’ Rights in Egypt. Washington, DC: The Solidarity Center.Google Scholar

Beinin, Joel. 2014. “Civil Society, NGOs and Egypt’s 2011 Popular Uprising.” The South Atlantic Quarterly, 113, 2: 396–406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Beinin, Joel and Vairel, Frédéric (eds.). 2013. Social Movements, Mobilization and Contestation in the Middle East and North Africa. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Beissinger, Mark R., Jamal, Amaney, and Mazur, Kevin. 2015. “Explaining Divergent Revolutionary Coalitions: Regime Strategies and the Structuring of Participation in the Tunisian and Egyptian Revolutions.” Comparative Politics, 48, 1: 1–24.Google Scholar

Bellin, Eva. 1995. “Civil Society in Formation: Tunisia.” In Norton, Augustus R. (ed.), Civil Society in the Middle East, Vol. I. Leiden, New York & Cologne: E.J. Brill, pp. 120–47.Google Scholar

Bellin, Eva. . 2004. “The Robustness of Authoritarianism in the Middle East: Exceptionalism in Comparative Perspective.” Comparative Politics, 36, 2: 139–57.Google Scholar

Bellin, Eva. 2012. “Reconsidering the Robustness of Authoritarianism in the Middle East: Lessons from the Arab Spring.” Comparative Politics, 44, 2: 27–49.Google Scholar

Bennoune, Karima. 1995. “S.O.S. Algeria: Women’s Human Rights under Siege.” In Afkhami, Mahnaz (ed.), Faith and Freedom: Women’s Human Rights. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, pp. 184–208.Google Scholar

Ben Romdhane, Mahmoud. 2011. Tunisie: l’Etat, économie et société. Paris: Editions Publisud.Google Scholar

Benski, Tova, Langman, Lauren, Perugorria, Ignacia, and Tejerina, Benjamin. 2013. “From the Streets and Squares to Social Movement Studies: What Have We Learned?” Current Sociology, 61, 4 (June): 541–61.Google Scholar

Bishara, Dina. 2018. Contesting Authoritarianism: Labor Challenges to the State in Egypt. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Black, Ian. 2011. “Qatar Admits to Sending Hundreds of Troops to Support Libya Rebels.” The Guardian, October 26. www.theguardian.com/world/2011/oct/26/qatar-troops-libya-rebels-supportGoogle Scholar

Borovsky, Gabriella and Yahia, Asma Ben. 2012. “Women’s Political Participation in Tunisia after the Revolution: Findings from Focus Groups in Tunisia Conducted February 17–28, 2012.” Washington, DC: National Democratic Institute (May).Google Scholar

Botman, Selma. 1988. “Egyptian Women in the Communist Movement, 1939–54. Women’s Studies International Forum, 11, 2: 117–26.Google Scholar

Brady, Henry, Verba, Sidney, and Lehman Schlozman, Kay. 1995. “Beyond SES: A Resource Model of Political Participation.” American Political Science Review, 89, 2: 271–94.Google Scholar

Brand, Laurie A. (1998). Women, the State, and Political Liberalization: Middle Eastern and North African Experiences. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar

Browers, Michaelle. 2009. Political Ideology in the Arab World: Accommodation and Transformation. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Brown, L. Carl. 1984. International Politics and the Middle East. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Brown, Nathan. 2013. “Egypt’s Failed Transition.” Journal of Democracy, 24, 4 (October): 45–58.Google Scholar

Brown, Nathan, Hamzawy, Amr and Ottaway, Marina. 2006. “Islamist Movements and the Democratic Process in the Arab World: Exploring Gray Zones.” Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Paper No. 67 (March). www.carnegieendowment.org/publications/index.cfm?fa=view&id=18095&prog=zgp&proj=zdrl,zmeGoogle Scholar

Brownlee, Jason. 2012. Democracy Prevention. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Brownlee, Jason, Masoud, Tarek and Reynolds, Andrew. 2013. “Why the Modest Harvest?” Journal of Democracy, 24, 4: 29–44.Google Scholar

Brownlee, Jason, Masoud, Tarek and Reynolds, Andrew. 2015. The Arab Spring: Pathways of Repression and Reform. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Brynen, Rex, Korany, Bahgat and Noble, Paul. 1995. “Introduction: Theoretical Perspectives on Arab Liberalization and Democratization.” In Brynen, Rex, Korany, Bahgat and Noble, Paul (eds.), Political Liberalization and Democratization in the Arab World, Vol. 1. Boulder, CO. Lynne Rienner Publishers, pp. 3–28.Google Scholar

Brysk, Alison. 2018. The Struggle for Freedom from Fear: Contesting Violence against Women at the Frontiers of Globalization. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Buehler, Matt. 2015. “Labour Demands, Regime Concessions: Moroccan Unions and the Arab Uprising.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 42, 1: 88–103.Google Scholar

Bunce, Valerie. 2009. “Reflections on 1989 and Authoritarianism.” Problems of Post-Communism, 56, 5 (September/October): 19–24.Google Scholar

Bunce, Valerie J. and Wolchik, Sharon L.. 2006. “International Diffusion and Postcommunist Electoral Revolutions.” Postcommunist Studies. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postcomstud.2006.06.001Google Scholar

Butenschon, Nils A., Davis, Uri, and Hassasian, Manuel (eds.). 2000.Citizenship and the State in the Middle East. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.Google Scholar

Cabrera, Julie. 2017. “Moroccan and Spanish Officials Meet to Implement New Family and Women Program.” Moroccan World News, March 15. https://bit.ly/2IHIFM9Google Scholar

Calhoun, Craig (ed.). 1993. Habermas and the Public Sphere. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar

Cammett, Melani, Diwan, Ishac, Richards, Alan, and Waterbury, John. 2015. A Political Economy of the Middle East, 4th ed. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar

Campante, Filipe R., and Chor, Davin. 2011. “‘The People Want the Fall of the Regime’: Schooling, Political Protest and the Economy.” HKS Faculty Research Working Paper RWP11–018.Google Scholar

Caprioli, Mary. 2000. “Gendered Conflict.” Journal of Peace Research, 37, 1: 51–68.Google Scholar

Caprioli, Mary. . 2005. “Primed for Violence: The Role of Gender Inequality in Predicting Internal Conflict.” International Studies Quarterly, 49: 161–78.Google Scholar

Carapico, Sheila. 1998. Civil Society in Yemen: The Political Economy of Activism in Modern Arabia. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Carapico, Sheila. 2000. “NGOs, INGOs, GO-NGOs and DO-NGOs: Making Sense of Non- Governmental Organizations.” Middle East Report, 214 (Spring). https://merip.org/2000/03/ngos-ingos-go-ngos-and-do-ngos/Google Scholar

Carothers, Thomas. 1999. Aiding Democracy Abroad. New York: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.Google Scholar

Carothers, Thomas. 2002. “The End of the Transition Paradigm.” Journal of Democracy, 13, 1 (January): 5–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Carothers, Thomas and Ottaway, Marina S. (eds.). 2005. Uncharted Journey: Promoting Democracy in the Middle East. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.Google Scholar

Carter Center, The. 2012. “General National Congress Elections in Libya.” July 7. www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/news/peace_publications/election_reports/libya-070712-final-rpt.pdfGoogle Scholar

Çavdar, Gamze and Yasar, Yavuz. 2014. “Moving Beyond Culturalism and Formalism: Islam, Women, and Political Unrest in the Middle East.” Feminist Economics, 20, 4 (October): 33–57.Google Scholar

Chaney, Eric. 2012. “Democratic Change in the Arab World, Past and Present.” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, (Spring): 363–414.Google Scholar

Charles, Lorraine and Denman, Kate. 2013. “Syrian and Palestinian Syrian Refugees in Lebanon: The Plight of Women and Children.” Journal of International Women’s Studies, 14, 5: 96–111. http://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol14/iss5/7Google Scholar

Charrad, Mounira. 1997. “Policy Shifts: State, Islam, and Gender in Tunisia, 1930s–1990s.” Social Politics, 4, 2 (Summer): 285–319.Google Scholar

Charrad, Mounira. 2001. States and Women’s Rights: Family Law in Postcolonial Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Charrad, Mounira M. and Reith, Nicholas. 2019. “Local Solidarities: How the Arab Spring Protests Started.” Sociological Forum, 34: 1174–96.Google Scholar

Charrad, Mounira and Zarrugh, Amira. 2014. “Equal or Complementary? Women in the New Tunisian Constitution After the Arab Spring.” Journal of North African Studies, 19, 2: 230–43.Google Scholar

Chase-Dunn, C. and Niemeyer, R.E.. 2009. “The world revolution of 20xx.” In Albert, Mathias, Bluhm, Gesa, Helmig, Han, Leutzsch, Andreas, Walter, Jochen (eds.) Transnational Political Spaces. Campus Verlag: Frankfurt/New York, pp. 35–57.Google Scholar

Chase-Dunn, Christopher, Dudley, Jennifer, and Grimes, Peter. 2018. “The Global Right in the Revolutions of 1917 and 20xx.” University of California, Irvine, Institute for Research on World-Systems. https://irows.ucr.edu/papers/irows118/irows118.htmGoogle Scholar

Chaudhry, Aziz. 2004. The Price of Wealth: Economies and Institutions in the Middle East. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Chayes, Sarah. 2014. “How a Leftist Labor Union Helped Force Tunisia’s Political Settlement.” Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (March 27). https://carnegieendowment.org/2014/03/27/how-leftist-labor-union-helped-force-tunisia-s-political-settlement-pub-55143Google Scholar

Chehabi, H.E. and Linz, Juan J.. 1998. “A Theory of Sultanism 1: A Type of Nondemocratic Rule.” In Chehabi, H.E. and Linz, Juan J. (eds.), Sultanistic Regimes. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, pp. 3–25.Google Scholar

Chenoweth, Erica and Stephan, Maria. 2012. Why Civil Resistance Works: The Strategic Logic of Nonviolent Conflict. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar

Cherifati-Merabtine, Doria. 1995. “Algerian Women at a Crossroads: National Liberation, Islamization, and Women.” In Moghadam, Valentine M. (ed.), Gender and National Identity: Women and Politics in Muslim Societies. London: Zed Books, pp. 40–62.Google Scholar

Chinchilla, Norma Stoltz. 1994. “Feminism, Revolution, and Democratic Transitions in Nicaragua.” In Jacquette, Jane S. (ed.), The Women’s Movement in Latin America: Participation and Democracy. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, pp. 177–96.Google Scholar

Chivvis, Christopher S. 2014. Toppling Qaddafi: Libya and the Limits of Liberal Intervention. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

CIA (Central Intelligence Agency). World Factbook. www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/Google Scholar

Cirilli, Kevin. 2013. “McCain: It Was a Coup, Suspend Aid to Egypt.” Politico, July 7. www.politico.com/blogs/politico-now/2013/07/mccain-it-was-a-coup-suspend-aid-to-egypt–167699Google Scholar

Clark, David and Regan, Patrick. 2016. “Mass Mobilization Protest Data.” https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/HTTWYLGoogle Scholar

Clark, Janine A. 2004. Islam, Charity, and Activism: Middle-Class Networks and Social Welfare in Egypt, Jordan, and Yemen. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar

Clark, Janine A. and Khatib, Lina. 2017. “Actors, Public Opinion, and Participation.” In Lust, Ellen (ed.), The Middle East, 14th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 243–87.Google Scholar

Clark, Janine A. and Schwedler, Jillian. 2003. “Who Opened the Window? Women’s Activism Within Islamist Parties.” Comparative Politics, 35, 3 (April): 293–312.Google Scholar

Clinton, Hillary Rodham. 2014. Hard Choices. New York: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar

Cohen, Jean L. 1983. Class and Civil Society: The Limits of Marxian Critical Theory. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press.Google Scholar

Cohen, Jean L. and Arato, Andrew. 1992. Civil Society and Political Theory. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar

Colombo, Silvia. 2012. “The GCC Countries and the Arab Spring: Between Outreach, Patronage and Repression.” Instituo Affari Internazionali (IAI) Working Papers 12/09 (March). www.iai.it/sites/default/files/iaiwp1209.pdfGoogle Scholar

Constitution Project. www.constituteproject.org/Google Scholar

Constitution Project. “Bahrain’s Constitution of 2002.”Google Scholar

Constitution Project. “Morocco’s Constitution of 2011.”Google Scholar

Constitution Project. “Syrian Arab Republic’s Constitution of 2012.”Google Scholar

Cook, A. Steven. 2019. “Europe’s Future Will be Decided in North Africa.” Foreign Policy, July 18. https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/07/18/europes-future-will-be-decided-in-north-africa/Google Scholar

Cooper, Helen, Landler, Mark, and Sanger, David E., 2011. “In U.S. Signals to Egypt, Obama Straddled a Rift.” New York Times, February 12. www.nytimes.com/2011/02/13/world/middleeast/13diplomacy.html?ref=egyptGoogle Scholar

Corstange, Daniel. 2016. The Price of a Vote in the Middle East: Clientelism and Communal Politics in Lebanon and Yemen. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Crystal, Jill. 1996. “Civil Society in the Arabian Gulf.” In Norton, August Richard (ed.), Civil Society in the Middle East, Vol. 2. Lieden: Brill, pp. 259–86.Google Scholar

Çubukçu, Ayça. 2018. For the Love of Humanity: The World Tribunal on Iraq. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar

Cunningham, E. David. 2010. “Blocking Resolution: How External States Can Prolong Civil Wars.” Journal of Peace Research, 47, 2: 115–27.Google Scholar

Dabashi, Hamid. 2012. The Arab Spring: The End of Postcolonialism. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar

Dahlgren, Susanne. 2010. Contesting Realities: The Public Sphere and Morality in Southern Yemen. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.Google Scholar

Dahlum, Sirianne, Knutsen, Carl Henrik and Wig, Tore. 2019. “Here’s What We Learned about the Working Class.” Washington Post, Monkey Cage, October 24. https://wapo.st/3lYRJLyGoogle Scholar

Damis, John. 1998. “Morocco’s 1995 Association Agreement with the European Union.” Journal of North African Studies, 3, 4: 91–112.Google Scholar

Dandashly, Assem and Kourtelis, Christos. 2020. “Classifying the Implementation of the EU’s Normative Power in its Southern Neighbourhood: The Role of Local Actors.” Journal of Common Market Studies, 58, 6: 1523–39.Google Scholar

Daoud, Kamel. 2015. ‘The Algerian Exception.” The New York Times, May 29.Google Scholar

Darhour, Hanane and Dahlerup, Drude. 2013. “Sustainable Representation of Women Through Gender Quotas: A Decade’s Experience in Morocco.” Women’s Studies International Forum, 41, Part 2 (November–December): 132–42.Google Scholar

Darwich, May. 2017. “Creating the Enemy, Constructing the Threat: The Diffusion of Repression Against the Muslim Brotherhood in the Middle East.” Democratization, 24, 7: 1289–306.Google Scholar

Darwich, May. 2019. Threats and Alliances in the Middle East: Saudi and Syrian Policies in a Turbulent Region. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Davies, James. 1962. “Toward a Theory of Revolution.” American Sociological Review, 27, 1: 5–19.Google Scholar

Deane, Shelley. 2013. “Transforming Tunisia: The Role of Civil Society in Tunisia’s Transition.” London: International Alert. www.international-alert.org/sites/default/files/publications/Tunisia2013EN.pdfGoogle Scholar

della Porta, Donatella. 2009. Democracy in Social Movements. London: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar

de Mesquita, Bruce Bueno and Downs, George W.. 2006. “Intervention and Democracy.” International Organization, 60, 3, 627–49.Google Scholar

Diamond, Larry. 1992. “Economic Development and Democracy Reconsidered.” In Marks, G. and Diamond, L. (eds.), Reexamining Democracy. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, pp. 93–139.Google Scholar

Diamond, Larry. 1994. “Rethinking Civil Society: Toward Democratic Consolidation.” Journal of Democracy, 5, 3, 4–17.Google Scholar

Diamond, Larry. 2010. “Why Are There No Arab Democracies?” Journal of Democracy, 21, 1: 93–104.Google Scholar

Dickinson, Elizabeth. 2013. “Follow the Money: How Syrian Salafists are Funded from the Gulf.” Carnegie Middle East Center, December 23. https://carnegie-mec.org/diwan/54011Google Scholar

Di Marco, Graciela. 2011. “Gendered Economic Rights and Trade Unionism: The Case of Argentina.” In Moghadam, V. M., Franzway, Suzanne, and Fonow, Mary Margaret (eds.), Making Globalization Work for Women: The Role of Social Rights and Trade Union Leadership. New York: State University of New York Press, pp. 93–121.Google Scholar

Dodman, Benjamin. 2019. “France Under Pressure to Come Clean Over Arms Exports to Yemen War.” France24, April 20. www.france24.com/en/20190420-france-arms-exports-yemen-saudi-uae-khashoggi-discloseGoogle Scholar

Dresch, Paul. 2000. A History of Modern Yemen. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Durac, Vincent. 2015. “Social Movements, Protest Movements and Cross-Ideological Coalitions – The Arab Uprisings Re-Appraised.” Democratization, 22, 2: 239–58.Google Scholar

Dwyer, Kevin. 1991. Arab Voices: The Debate on Human Rights in the Middle East. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Economist, The. 2016. “To Silence Dissidents, Gulf States Are Revoking Their Citizenship.” November 26. www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2016/11/26/to-silence-dissidents-gulf-states-are-revoking-their-citizenshipGoogle Scholar

Economist, The. 2017. “An Unhappy Isle: Bahrain Is Still Hounding its Shia.” January 19. www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2017/01/19/bahrain-is-still-hounding-its-shiaGoogle Scholar

Economist, The. 2018. “Miffed in Manama.” November 24, p. 42. www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2018/11/24/an-unfair-election-in-bahrain-will-not-satisfy-the-shia-majorityGoogle Scholar

Egnell, Robert. 2014. “Conclusion: Lessons and Consequences of Operation Unified Protector”. In Engelbrekt, Kjell, Mohlin, Marcus, and Wagnsson, Charlotte (eds.), The NATO Intervention in Libya. Oxon: UK: Routledge, pp. 221–35.Google Scholar

Egypt Today. 2019. “Sisi Renews State of Emergency Law for 3 Months.” October 27. www.egypttoday.com/Article/1/76243/Sisi-renews-state-of-emergency-for-3-monthsGoogle Scholar

Elbadawi, Ibrahim and Makdisi, Samir (ed.). 2017a. Democratic Transitions in the Arab World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Elbadawi, Ibrahim and Makdisi, Samir. 2017b. “Explaining Democratic Transitions in the Arab World.” In Elbadawi, and Makdisi, (eds.), Democratic Transitions in the Arab World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 13–74.Google Scholar

Elbadawi, Ibrahim A. and Sambanis, Nicholas. 2000. “External interventions and the Duration of Civil Wars.” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 2433. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/19794/multi_page.pdf;sequence=1Google Scholar

El Feki, S., Heilman, B., and Barker, G.. 2017. Understanding Masculinities: Results from the International Men and Gender Equality Survey (IMAGES) – Middle East and North Africa. Cairo Washington, DC: UN Women and Promundo-US.Google Scholar

Elveren, Adem and Moghadam, Valentine M.. 2019. “The Impact of Militarization on Gender Inequality and Female Labor-Force Participation.” Cairo: Economic Research Forum for the Arab Countries, Iran and Turkey, ERF Working Paper # 1307 (June). http://erf.org.eg/publications/1307/Google Scholar

Engelbrekt, Kjell and Wagnsson, Charlotte. 2014. “Introduction.” In Engelbrekt, Kjell, Mohlin, Marcus and Wagnsson, Charlotte (eds.), The NATO Intervention in Libya. Oxon: UK: Routledge, pp. 1–14.Google Scholar

Esfandiari, Haleh and Brodsky, Jason. 2015. “In Bahrain, Arab Spring Hopes are Freezing Over.” Wall Street Journal, February 18. www.wsj.com/articles/BL-WB-53107Google Scholar

European Commission. EU Aid Explorer. https://euaidexplorer.ec.europa.eu/Google Scholar

European Union Law. “Treaty on European Union 1992.” https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:11992M/TXTGoogle Scholar

Fadel, Mona Abbas. 2019. “Bahraini Women after the Uprising.” In Al-Atiyat, Ibtesam (ed.), Gender Justice and the Uprisings in the Arab World: Gendered Citizenship, Gender Equality, and Women’s Mobilization in Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Lebanon, Bahrain, and the Islamic State. Beirut: The Arab Network for the Study of Democracy, AUB, pp. 91–xx.Google Scholar

Fahim, Kareem. 2018. “A Saudi Agent Discussed Hiding Khashoggi’s Remains Before Killing.” Washington Post, November 27, p. A12. https://wapo.st/2McjDXqGoogle Scholar

Fahim, Kareem and Ali Zway, Suliman. 2014. “Violence and Uncertainty Mar Libyan Election for a New Parliament.” New York Times, June 25. https://nyti.ms/2Y18CuOGoogle Scholar

Farhi, Farideh. 1990. States and Urban-Based Revolutions: Iran and Nicaragua. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar

Fearon, James D. and Laitin, David. 2004. “Neotrusteeship and the Problem of Weak States.” International Security, 28, 4, 5–43.Google Scholar

Fetouri, Mustafa. 2015. “Women Face Setbacks in New Libya.” Al-Monitor, March 23. www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/03/libya-women-murder-situation-gaddafi-regime-militias.htmlGoogle Scholar

Fisher, Max. 2016. “The State Department’s Dissent Memo on Syria: An Explanation.” June 22. www.nytimes.com/2016/06/23/world/middleeast/syria-assad-obama-diplomats-memo.htmlGoogle Scholar

Foran, John. 1997. “The Future of Revolutions at the fin-de-siècle. Third World Quarterly, 18, 5: 791–820.Google Scholar

Foundation for the Future. 2011. “Assessing Needs of Civil Society in Libya.” https://bit.ly/2NnozJvGoogle Scholar

Franzese, J. Robert Jr. 2009. “Introduction: The Centrality of Multicausality, Context-Conditionality, and Endogeneity to Classical and Modern Comparative Politics.” In Boix, Charles and Stokes, Susan (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 27–72.Google Scholar

Freedom House. www.freedomhouse.orgGoogle Scholar

Fukuyama, Francis. 1992. The End of History and the Last Man. New York: The Free Press.Google Scholar

Fukuyama, Francis. 2014. Political Order and Political Decay. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.Google Scholar

Fund for Peace. Fragile States Index.Google Scholar

Gandhi, Jennifer. 2008. Political Institutions under Dictatorship. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Garton-Ash, Timothy. 1989. “Revolution in Hungary and Poland.” New York Review of Books, August 17. www.nybooks.com/articles/1989/08/17/revolution-in-hungary-and-poland/Google Scholar

Gaston, Erica. 2014. “Process Lessons Learned in Yemen’s National Dialogue.” United States Institute of Peace. www.usip.org/sites/default/files/SR342_Process-Lessons-Learned-in-Yemens-National-Dialogue.pdfGoogle Scholar

Gelvin, L. James. 2012. The Arab Uprisings: What Everyone Needs to Know. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Gengler, Justin. 2014. “Electoral Rules (and Threats) Cure Bahrain’s Sectarian Parliament.” Washington Post, December 1. https://wapo.st/3iCExuPGoogle Scholar

Gengler, Justin. 2015. Group Conflict and Political Mobilization in Bahrain and the Arab Gulf. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar

George, L. Alexander and Bennett, Andrew. 2005. Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar

Ghafar, Adel Abdel and Hess, Bill. 2018. “Islamist Parties in North Africa: A Comparative Analysis of Morocco, Tunisia, and Egypt.” Brookings Doha Center Analysis Paper, No. 22 (July).Google Scholar

Ghazzawi, Razan. 2014. “Seeing the Women in Revolutionary Syria.” Open Democracy, April 8. www.opendemocracy.net/arab-awakening/razan-ghazzawi/seeing-women-in-revolutionary-syriaGoogle Scholar

Gleditsch, Kristian Skrede. 2007. “Transnational Dimensions of Civil War.” Journal of Peace, 44, 3: 293–309.Google Scholar

Gleditsch, Kristian Skrede and Ward, Michael D.. 2006. “Diffusion and the International Context of Democratization.” International Organization, 60, 4: 911–33.Google Scholar

Goldstein, Eric and Benchemsi, Ahmed. 2013. “Support Real Reform in Morocco.” Foreign Policy, November 19.Google Scholar

Goldstone, A. Jack. 2009. “Rethinking Revolutions: Integrating Origins, Processes, and Outcomes.” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 29, 1: 18–32.Google Scholar

Goldstone, A. Jack. 2011a. “Understanding the Revolutions of 2011: Weakness and Resilience in Middle Eastern Autocracies.” Foreign Affairs, 90: 8.Google Scholar

Goldstone, A. Jack. 2011b. “Cross-Class Coalitions and the Making of the Arab Revolts of 2011.” Swiss Political Science Review, 17, 4: 457–62.Google Scholar

Goulding, Kristine. 2009. “Unjustifiable Means to Unjustifiable Ends: Delegitimizing Parliamentary Gender Quotas in Tunisia.” Al-Raida, 126: 71–8.Google Scholar

Gourevitch, Peter. 1978. “The Second Image Reversed: The International Sources of Domestic Politics.” International Organization, 32, 4: 881–912.Google Scholar

Gramsci, Antonio. 1982. Selections from the Prison Notebooks. London: Lawrence and Wishart.Google Scholar

Greshman, Carl. 2011. “The Fourth Wave: Where the Middle East Revolts Fit in the History of Democratization – And How We Can Support Them.” The New Republic, March 14.Google Scholar

Grewal, Sharan. 2019. “Military Defection During Localized Protests: The Case of Tataouine.” International Studies Quarterly, 63: 259–69.Google Scholar

Grewal, Sharan and Hamid, Shadi. 2020. “The Dark Side of Consensus in Tunisia.” Washington, DC: Brookings Institution. www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/FP_20200131_tunisia_consensus_grewal_hamid.pdfGoogle Scholar

Grewal, Sharan and Kureshi, Yasser. 2019. “How to Sell a Coup: Elections as Coup Legitimation.” Journal of Conflict Resolution, 63, 4: 1001–31.Google Scholar

Gribaa, Boutheina. 2008–09. Mapping of the Situation of Women’s Participation in Politics in Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia. Tunis: CAWTAR.Google Scholar

Grimmett, Richard E. 2010. “Convention Arms Transfers to Developing Nations, 2002–2009.” September 10. https://fas.org/sgp/crs/weapons/R41403.pdfGoogle Scholar

Grinin, Leonid, Korotayev, Andrey, and Tausch, Arno. 2019. Islamism, Arab Spring, and the Future of Democracy: World System and World Values Perspectives. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.Google Scholar

Grumiller, Jan, Raza, Werner, Staritz, Cornelia, et al. 2018. “The Economic and Social Effects of the EU Free Trade Agreement (DCFTA) with Tunisia.” Austrian Foundation for Development Research. https://bit.ly/39Ue34eGoogle Scholar

Gunning, Jeroen and Baron, Ilan Zvi. 2013. Why Occupy a Square? People, Protests and Movements in the Egyptian Revolution. London: Hurst.Google Scholar

Guo, Sujian and Stradiotto, Gary. 2014. Democratic Transitions: Modes and Outcomes. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Gurr, Ted. 1970. Why Men Rebel. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Gursel, Kadri. 2014. “Turkey Paying Price for Jihadist Highway on Border.” Al-Monitor, June 13. www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/06/gursel-al-qaeda-isis-turkey-mosul-iraq-syria-consulate.htmlGoogle Scholar

Haas, Mark L. 2013. “Turkey and the Arab Spring.” In Haas, Mark L. and Lesch, David W. (eds.), The Arab Spring: Change and Resistance in the Middle East. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, pp. 152–73.Google Scholar

Habermas, Juergen. 1984. Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 1: Reason and the Rationalization of Society. Tr. McCarthy, Thomas. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.Google Scholar

Hacaoglu, Selcan. 2019. “In Battle for Tripoli, Turkey Has Billions in Projects at Stake.” Bloomberg (July 8).Google Scholar

Haddad, Bassam and Wind, Ella. 2014. “The Fragmented State of the Syrian Opposition.” In Kamrava, Mehran (ed.), Beyond the Arab Spring: The Evolving Ruling Bargain in the Middle East. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 397–435.Google Scholar

Hadenius, Axel and Teorell, Jan. 2005. “Cultural and Economic Prerequisites of Democracy: Reassessing Recent Evidence.” Studies in Comparative International Development, 39, 4: 87–106.Google Scholar

Hale, Henry E. 2013. “Regime Change Cascades: What we have learned from the 1848 Revolutions to the 2011 Arab Uprisings.” Annual Review of Political Science, 16: 331–53.Google Scholar

Hamid, Shadi. 2014. Temptations of Power. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Hammad, Hanan. 2011. “The Other Extremists: Marxist Feminism in Egypt 1980–2000.” Journal of International Women’s Studies, 12, 3: 217–33.Google Scholar

Hammad, Hanan. 2016. “Arwa Salih’s The Premature: Gendering the History of the Egyptian Left.” Arab Studies Journal, 24, 1 (Spring): 118–42.Google Scholar

Hamzawy, Amr. 2016. “Egypt’s Anti-Protest Law: Legalizing Authorit-arianism.” Al Jazeera, November 24. www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2016/11/egypt-anti-protest-law-legalising-authoritarianismGoogle Scholar

Hanieh, Adam. 2013. Lineages of Revolt. Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books.Google Scholar

Härdig, Anders C. 2015. “Beyond the Arab Revolts: Conceptualizing Civil Society in the Middle East and North Africa.” Democratization, 22, 6: 1131–53.Google Scholar

Harik, Ilya and Sullivan, Denis (eds.). 1992. Privatization and Liberalization in the Middle East. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar

Hasso, Frances S. and Salime, Zakia (eds.). 2016. Freedom Without Permission: Bodies and Space in the Arab Revolutions. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar

Hatahet, Sinan. 2019. “Russia and Iran: Economic Influence in Syria.” Chatham House. www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/publications/research/2019–03-08RussiaAndIranEconomicInfluenceInSyria.pdfGoogle Scholar

Hatem, Mervat. 1992. “Economic and Political Liberation [sic; Liberalization] in Egypt and the Demise of State Feminism.” International Journal of Middle East Studies, 24, 2 (May): 231–51.Google Scholar

Hatem, Mervat. 1994. “Privatization and the Demise of State Feminism in Egypt 1977–1990.” In Sparr, Pamela (ed.), Mortgaging Women’s Lives: Feminist Critiques of Structural Adjustment. London: Zed Books, pp. 40–57.Google Scholar

Hedley, Bill. 1988. Intervention in World Politics. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Heinen, Jacqueline. 1992. “Polish Democracy Is a Masculine Democracy.” Women’s Studies International Forum, 15, 1: 129–38.Google Scholar

Herb, Michael. 2005. “Princes, Parliaments, and the Prospects for Democracy in the Gulf.” In Posusney, Marsha Pripstein and Angrist, Michele Penner (eds.), Authoritarianism in the Middle East: Regimes and Resistance. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, pp. 237–67.Google Scholar

Herb, Michael. 2017. The Lower Gulf States. In Lust, Ellen (ed.), The Middle East, 14th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 644–73.Google Scholar

Heydemann, Steven. 1999. Authoritarianism in Syria: Institutions and Social Conflict 1946–1970. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Heydemann, Steven and Leenders, Renoud. 2014. “Authoritarian Learning and Counterrevolution.” In Lynch, Marc (ed.), The Arab Uprisings Explained: New Contentious Politics in the Middle-East. New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 75–92.Google Scholar

Hilali, Amel al-. 2018. “Tunisian Women Fighting for Equal Inheritance Rights.” Al-Monitor, March 13. www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2018/03/tunisian-women-rally-demand-equal-inheritance-rights.htmlGoogle Scholar

Hill, Christopher. 1984. The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas During the English Revolution. London and New York: Penguin.Google Scholar

Hinnebusch, Raymond. 1984. “Charisma, Revolution, and State-Formation: Qaddafi and Libya.” Third World Quarterly, 6, 1: 59–73.Google Scholar

Hinnebusch, Raymond. 1993. “State and Civil Society in Syria.” Middle East Journal, 47, 2 (Spring): 243–57.Google Scholar

Hinnebusch, Raymond. 2006. “Authoritarian Persistence, Democratization Theory and the Middle East: An Overview and Critique.” Journal of Democracy, 13, 3: 373–95.Google Scholar

Hinnebusch, Raymond. 2014. “Syria.” In Lust, Ellen (ed.), The Middle East, 13th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 764–88.Google Scholar

Hinnebusch, Raymond. 2015. The International Politics of the Middle East, 2nd ed. Manchester: Manchester University Press.Google Scholar

Hinnebusch, Raymond. 2017. “Syria.” In Lust, Ellen (ed.), The Middle East, 14th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 781–807.Google Scholar

Hintze, Otto. 1975. “Military Organization and the Organization of the State.” In Gilbert, Felix (ed.), The Historical Essays of Otto Hintze. New York: Oxford University Press., pp. 178–215.Google Scholar

Hoare, Quintin and Smith, Geoffrey Nowell (eds. & trans). 1971. Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci. New York: International Publishers.Google Scholar

Hobsbawm, Eric. 2005. “The Dangers of Exporting Democracy: Bush’s Crusade Is Based on a Dangerous Illusion and Will Fail.” The Guardian (UK), January 22.Google Scholar

Hoekman, Bernard and Ozden, Caglar. 2010. “The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership: Trade in Services as an Alternative to Migration?” Journal of Common Market Studie, 48, 4: 835–57.Google Scholar

Holland, Steve. 2019. “White House Says Trump Spoke to Libyan command Haftar on Monday.” Reuters, April 19. https://reut.rs/35Tl30jGoogle Scholar

Howard, Philip N. and Hussain, Muzammil M.. 2013. Democracy’s Fourth Wave? Digital Media and the Arab Spring. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Htun, Mala and Weldon, Laurel. 2012. “The Civic Origins of Progressive Policy Change: Combating Violence against Women in Global Perspective 1975–2005.” American Political Science Review, 106, 3: 548–69.Google Scholar

Htun, Mala and Weldon, Laurel. 2018. The Logics of Gender Justice: State Action on Women’s Rights around the World. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Huber, Daniela. 2008. “Democracy Assistance in the Middle East and North Africa: A Comparison of US and EU Policies.” Mediterranean Politics, 13, 1: 43–62.Google Scholar

Hudson, Valerie. 2010. “Sex, War and Peace: Rank, and Winter on Rank.” Political Psychology, 31, 1: 33–9.Google Scholar

Hudson, Valerie, Ballif-Spanvill, Bonnie, Caprioli, Mary, and Emmett, Chad F.. 2014. Sex & World Peace. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar

Hudson, Valerie, Caprioli, Mary, Ballif-Spanvill, Bonnie, McDermott, Rose and Emmett, Chad F. 2008/09. “The Heart of the Matter: The Security of Women and the Security of States.” International Security, 33, 3 (Winter): 7–45.Google Scholar

Human Rights Watch. 2013a. “Bahrain.” www.hrw.org/world-report/2013/country-chapters/bahrainGoogle Scholar

Human Rights Watch. 2013b. “Syria: Counterterrorism Court Used to Stifle Dissent.” June 25. www.hrw.org/news/2013/06/25/syria-counterterrorism-court-used-stifle-dissentGoogle Scholar

Human Rights Watch. 2014a. “All According to Plan: the Rab’a Massacre and Mass Killings of Protestors in Egypt.” August 12. www.hrw.org/report/2014/08/12/all-according-plan/raba-massacre-and-mass-killings-protesters-egyptGoogle Scholar

Human Rights Watch. 2014b. “World Report: Libya.” www.hrw.org/world-report/2014/country-chapters/libyaGoogle Scholar

Human Rights Watch. 2014c. “Syria: Abuses in Kurdish-run Enclaves.” June 18. www.hrw.org/news/2014/06/18/syria-abuses-kurdish-run-enclavesGoogle Scholar

Human Rights Watch. 2015. “Tunisia: Flaws in Revised Counterterrorism Bill.” April 8. www.hrw.org/news/2015/04/08/tunisia-flaws-revised-counterterrorism-billGoogle Scholar

Human Rights Watch. 2018a. “Bahrain: No Free Elections in Current Environment.” November 20. www.hrw.org/news/2018/11/20/bahrain-no-free-elections-current-environment#Google Scholar

Human Rights Watch. 2018b. “Q&A: Syria’s New Property Law.” May 29. www.hrw.org/news/2018/05/29/qa-syrias-new-property-lawGoogle Scholar

Human Rights Watch. 2019. “Tunisia: Truth Commission Outlines Decades of Abuse.” April 5. www.hrw.org/news/2019/04/05/tunisia-truth-commission-outlines-decades-abuseGoogle Scholar

Huntington, Samuel. 1968. Political Order in Changing Societies. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar

Huntington, Samuel. 1991. The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar

Ibrahim, Saad E. 1995. “Civil Society and Prospects of Democratization in the Arab World.” In Norton, Augustus R. (ed.), Civil Society in the Middle East, Vol. I. Leiden, New York & Cologne: E.J. Brill, pp. 27–54.Google Scholar

ICG (International Crisis Group). 2011. “Popular Protest in North Africa and the Middle East: Making Sense of Libya.” Report No. 107 (June 6).Google Scholar

ICG (International Crisis Group). 2016. “The North Caucasus Insurgency and Syria: An Exported Jihad?” Report No. 238, March 16. www.crisisgroup.org/europe-central-asia/caucasus/north-caucasus/north-caucasus-insurgency-and-syria-exported-jihadGoogle Scholar

ICG (International Crisis Group). 2019. “Of Tanks and Banks: Stopping a Dangerous Escalation in Libya.” May 20. www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/north-africa/libya/201-tanks-and-banks-stopping-dangerous-escalation-libyaGoogle Scholar

IDEA. “Gender Quotas Database.” Stockholm: International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. www.idea.int/data-tools/data/gender-quotasGoogle Scholar

IFES (International Foundation for Electoral Systems). www.ifes.org/Google Scholar

Inglehart, Ronald, and Norris, Pippa. 2003. Rising Tide: Gender Equality and Cultural Change Around the World. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Inglehart, Ronald, and Welzel, Christian. 2005. Modernization, Cultural Change, and Democracy: The Human Development Sequence. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

International Republican Institute. 2019. “Public Opinion Survey: Residents of Tunisia December 3–December 15, 2019.” www.iri.org/sites/default/files/tunisia_final_slides.pdfGoogle Scholar

Inter-Parliamentary Union. “Women in National Parliaments,” Statistical Archive, 1997–2019. http://archive.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif-arc.htmGoogle Scholar

Isakhan, Benjamin, Shamiran Mako, Fadi Dawood (eds.). 2017. State and Society in Iraq: Citizenship Under Occupation, Dictatorship and Democratisation. London. I.B. Tauris.Google Scholar

Jad, Islah. 2010. “The Demobilization of a Palestinian Women’s Movement: From Empowered Active Militants to Powerless and Stateless ‘Citizens’.” In Basu, Amrita (ed.), Women’s Movements in the Global Era. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, pp. 343–74.Google Scholar

Jamal, Amaney and Khatib, Lina. 2014. “Actors, Public Opinion, and Participation.” In Lust, Ellen (ed.), The Middle East, 13th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 246–85.Google Scholar

Jaquette, Jane (ed.). 1994. The Women’s Movement in Latin America: Participation and Democracy, 2nd ed. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar

Jaquette, Jane. 2001. “Regional Differences and Contrasting Views.” Journal of Democracy, 12, 3 (July): 11–125.Google Scholar

Johnstone, Sarah and Mazo, Jeffrey. 2011. “Global Warming and the Arab Spring.” Survival, 53, 2: 11–17.Google Scholar

Joseph, Suad (ed.). 2000. Gender and Citizenship in the Middle East. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.Google Scholar

Juneau, Thomas. 2016. “Iran’s Policy Towards the Houthis in Yemen: A Limited Return on a Modest Investment.” International Affairs, 92, 3: 647–63.Google Scholar

Kadivar, Mohammad Ali. 2018. “Mass Mobilization and the Durability of New Democracies.” American Sociological Review, 83, 2: 390–417.Google Scholar

Kadivar, Mohammad Ali and Ketchley, Neil. 2018. “Sticks, Stones, and Molotov Cocktails: Unarmed Collective Violence and Democratization.” Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, 4:1–16.Google Scholar

Kadlec, Amanda. 2014. “Libya.” In Lust, Ellen (ed.), The Middle East, 13th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 631–59.Google Scholar

Kaldor, Mary. 2003. Global Civil Society: An Answer to War. London: Polity Press.Google Scholar

Kandil, Amany. 1995. Civil Society in the Arab World. Washington, DC: Civicus.Google Scholar

Kandil, Hazem. 2012. Soldiers, Spies and Statesmen: Egypt’s Road to Revolt. New York: Verso Press.Google Scholar

Karl, Terry Lynn. 1990. “Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America.” Comparative Politics, 23: 1–21.Google Scholar

Karl, Terry Lynn and Schmitter, Philippe C.. 1991. “Modes of transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe.” International Social Science Journal, 128: 269–84.Google Scholar

Karshenas, Massoud and Moghadam, Valentine M. (eds.). 2006. Social Policy in the Middle East: Economic, Political, and Gender Dynamics. London and Geneva: Palgrave Macmillan and UNRISD.Google Scholar

Karshenas, Massoud, Moghadam, Valentine M., and Alami, Randa. 2014. “States and Social Rights: Social Policy after the Arab Spring.” World Development, 64 (September): 726–39.Google Scholar

Katzman, Kenneth. 2014. Bahrain: Reform, Security, and U.S. Policy. Report Number 95–1013. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.Google Scholar

Keane, John. 1998. Civil Society: Old Images, New Visions. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Keane, John. 2004. Violence and Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Kearney, James. 2019. “RAF strikes in Iraq and Syria: An Assessment.” AOAV, March 22 https://aoav.org.uk/2019/raf-airstrikes-in-iraq-and-syria-an-assessment/Google Scholar

Keck, Margaret and Sikkink, Kathryn. 1998. Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks and International Politics. New York: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Kelly, Sanja and Breslin, Julia (eds.). 2010. Women’s Rights in the Middle East and North Africa: Progress amid Resistance. New York, Washington, Lanham: Freedom House and Rowman and Littlefield Publishers.Google Scholar

Keohane, Robert O. and Nye, Joseph. 2012. Power and Interdependence, 4th ed. New York: Longman.Google Scholar

Kerr, Cortni and Jones, Toby. 2011. “A Revolution Paused in Bahrain.” MERIP, February 23. https://merip.org/2011/02/a-revolution-paused-in-bahrain/Google Scholar

Ketchley, Neil. 2017. Egypt in a Time of Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Khalaf, Roula and Smith, Abigail. 2013. “Qatar Bankrolls Syrian Revolt with Cash and Arms.” Financial Times, May 16. www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/86e3f28e-be3a-11e2-bb35-00144feab7de.html#axzz3BRr0bWtsGoogle Scholar

Khalidi, Suleiman al-. 2018. “Exclusive: Turkey Boosts Arms to Syrian Rebels as Idlib Attack Looms – rebel sources.” Reuters, September 12. https://reut.rs/3pKwMWWGoogle Scholar

Khalil, Andrea. 2014a. Crowds and Politics in North Africa: Tunisia, Algeria, and Libya. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Khalil, Andrea. 2014b. “Tunisia’s Women: Partners in Revolution.” Journal of North African Studies, 19, 2 (March): 186–99.Google Scholar

Khattab, Moushira. 2012. “Reflections on Women in the Arab Spring” (March) and “Egyptian Democracy: An Attainable Goal or a Mirage?” (June), both published in Viewpoints, Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Middle East Program.Google Scholar

Khelifa, Omezzine. 2012. “Quelles Temps pour les Femmes?” Femmes et Réalités, 16, (Special March 8 issue): 34–5.Google Scholar

Khondker, Habibul Haque. 2011. “Role of the New Media in the Arab Spring.” Globalizations, 8, 5: 675–79.Google Scholar

Khosrokhavar, Farhad. 2012. The New Arab Revolutions that Shook the World. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Books.Google Scholar

Kienle, Eberhard. 2015. “Changed Regimes, Changed Priorities? Economic and Social Policies after the 2011 Elections in Tunisia and Egypt.” Cairo: ERF Working Paper 928 (July).Google Scholar

Kingdom of Bahrain. “Qanoon rqam (٢٥) al-sana ٢٠١٨: beita‘del al-mada al-thalitha min al-marsoom b’qanoon rqam (١٤) al-sana (٢٠٠٢) b’sha’n m’bashra al-huqooq al-syasa [Decree Number (25) year 2018: Amending Article 3 of Law No. (14) year (2002) Regarding the Political Rights Directive]. www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail?p_lang=en&p_isn=83310&p_country=BHR&p_count=311Google Scholar

Kingsley, Patrick. 2013. “Egyptian Christian Funeral Ends in Violent Clashes, Killing One.” The Guardian, April 7. www.theguardian.com/world/2013/apr/07/egypt-funeral-violent-clashes-deadGoogle Scholar

Klaas, Brian. 2016. The Despot’s Accomplice: How the West is Aiding and Abetting the Decline of Democracy. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Klaas, Brian and Dirsus, Marcel. 2018. “Non-Governmental Organizations, International Organizations, and Civil Society in Tunisia.” NATO OPEN Publications (March).Google Scholar

Klandermans, Bert and van Stralen, Cornelis. 2015. Movements in Times of Democratic Transition. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.Google Scholar

Klare, Michael T. 1984. American Arms Supermarket. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar

Krafft, Caroline and Sieverding, Maia. 2018. “The Wellbeing of Syrian Refugees: Shifting from Humanitarian to Development Response in Jordan.” ERF Policy Brief, 34 (May): 4.Google Scholar

Krassowski, Andrzej. 1968. “The Aid Relationship.” The Overseas Development Institute, Ltd. www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/8001.pdfGoogle Scholar

Labidi, Lilia. 2007. “The Nature of Transnational Alliances in Women’s Associations in the Maghreb: The Case of AFTURD and AFTD in Tunisia.” Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies, 3, 1 (Winter): 6–34.Google Scholar

Labidi, Lilia. 2008. “From Sexual Submission to Voluntary Commitment: The Transformation of Family Ties in Contemporary Tunisia.” In Yount, Kathryn M. and Rashad, Hoda (eds.), Family in the Middle East: Ideational Change in Egypt, Iran, and Tunisia. London: Routledge, pp. 236–49.Google Scholar

Lackner, Helen. 1985. PDR Yemen: Outpost of Socialist Development in Arabia. Ithaca, NY: Ithaca Press.Google Scholar

Lackner, Helen. 2016. “Yemen’s ‘Peaceful’ Transition from Autocracy: Could It Have Succeeded?” Stockholm: IDEA. www.idea.int/sites/default/files/publications/yemens-peaceful-transition-from-autocracy.pdfGoogle Scholar

Lackner, Helen. 2017. Yemen in Crisis: Autocracy, Neoliberalism, and the Disintegration of a State. London: Saqi Books.Google Scholar

Lacroix, Stéphane and Filiu, Jean-Pierre (eds.). 2018. Revisiting the Arab Uprisings: The Politics of a Revolutionary Moment. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Lalami, Ferial. 2019. “Women’s Movements in Algeria: Between Institutionalization and Autonomy.” In al-Atiyat, Ibtesam (ed.), Gender Justice and the Uprisings in the Arab World: Gendered Citizenship, Gender Equality, and Women’s Mobilization in Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Lebanon, Bahrain, and the Islamic State. Beirut: The Arab Network for the Study of Democracy, AUB, pp. 73–82.Google Scholar

Landis, Joshua. 2005. “Syria Comment.” http://joshualandis.oucreate.com/syriablog/2005/11/damascus-declaration-in-english.htmGoogle Scholar

Langohr, Vickie. 2014. “Labor Movement and Organization.” In Lynch, Marc (ed.), The Arab Uprising Explained. New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 180–200.Google Scholar

Lawson, Fred. H. 1989. Bahrain: The Modernization of Autocracy. Boulder, CO. Westview Press, 1989.Google Scholar

Leverett, Flynt. 2005. Inheriting Syria. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.Google Scholar

Levi, Margaret, Johnson, James, Knight, Jack, and Stokes, Susan. 2008. “Introduction.” In Levi, Margaret, et al. (eds.), Designing Democratic Government: Making Institutions Work. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, pp. 1–18.Google Scholar

Lima, Cristiano. 2016. “Trump praises Egypt’s al-Sisi: ‘He’s a fantastic guy’.” Politico, September 22. www.politico.com/story/2016/09/trump-praises-egypts-al-sisi-hes-a-fantastic-guy–228560Google Scholar

Lintzer, Marie and Heni, Eissem. 2017. “Lessons from Tunisia: Empowering Civil Society in the Post-Truth Era.” BrinkNews. www.brinknews.com/lessons-from-tunisia-empowering-civil-society-in-the-post-truth-era/Google Scholar

Linz, J. Juan and Stepan, Alfred. 1996. Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

Lipset, Seymour Martin. 1959. “Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy.” American Political Science Review, 53, 1: 69–105.Google Scholar

Lloyd-Jones, Stewart. 2001. “Portugal’s History Since 1974.” Lisbon: ISCTE. www1.ci.uc.pt/cd25a/media/Textos/portugal-since-1974.pdfGoogle Scholar

Lührmann, Anna, Tannenberg, Marcus, and Lindberg, Staffan I.. 2018. “Regimes of the World (RoW): Opening New Avenues for the Comparative Studies of Political Regimes.” Politics and Governance, 6, 1: 60.Google Scholar

Lust-Okar, Ellen. 2005. Structuring Conflict in the Arab World. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Lust-Okar, Ellen. 2014. “Elections.” In Lynch, Marc (ed.), The Arab Uprisings Explained. New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 218–46.Google Scholar

Lynch, Marc. 2012. The Arab Uprising. New York: Public Affairs.Google Scholar

Maddy-Weitzman, Bruce. 2012. “Is Morocco Immune to Upheaval?” Middle East Quarterly, 19, 1: 87–93.Google Scholar

Maghraoui, Driss and Zerhouni, Sloua. 2014. “Morocco.” In Lust, Ellen (ed.), The Middle East, 13th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 674–709.Google Scholar

Mahdavi, Hossein. 1978. “Patterns and Problems of Economic Development in Rentier States: The Case of Iran.” In Cook, M.A. (ed.), Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 428–68.Google Scholar

Mahfoudh-Draoui, Dorra, Dridi, avec Houda et Amira, Sonia Zekri. 2016. Tunisiennes et action politique en context post-révolutionaire. Tunis: CREDIF.Google Scholar

Manea, Elham. 2010. “Yemen.” In Kelly, Sanja and Breslin, Julia (eds.), Women’s Rights in the Middle East and North Africa: Progress amid Resistance. New York, Washington, Lanham: Freedom House and Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, pp. 545–75.Google Scholar

Mazzetti, Mark, Chivers, C.J., and Schmitt, Eric. 2013. “Taking Outsize Role in Syria, Qatar Funnels Arms to Rebels.” New York Times, June 29. www.nytimes.com/2013/06/30/world/middleeast/sending-missiles-to-syrian-rebels-qatar-muscles-in.html?module=inlineGoogle Scholar

Mazzetti, Mark, Chivers, C.J., and Schmitt, Eric. 2017. “Behind the Sudden Death of a $1 Billion Secret C.I.A. War in Syria.” New York Times, August 2. www.nytimes.com/2017/08/02/world/middleeast/cia-syria-rebel-arm-train-trump.htmlGoogle Scholar

McAdam, Doug. 1988. Freedom Summer. Oxford and NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

McFaul, Michael. 2010. “The Missing Variable: The ‘International System’ as the Link between the Third and Fourth Wave Models of Democratization.” Stanford University: CDDRL Working Papers, No. 58 (May).Google Scholar

McKernan, Bethan. 2017. “The Middle Eastern Kingdom of Bahrain Is Quietly Heading Towards a ‘Total Suppression’ of Human Rights.” The Independent, June 3. www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/bahrain-unrest-protests-banning-political-parties-waad-wefaq-shia-sheik-isa-qassim-a7771351.htmlGoogle Scholar

Mecham, Quinn. 2014. “Bahrain’s Fractured Ruling Bargain: Political Mobilization, Regime Responses, and the New Sectarianism.” In Kamrava, Mehran (ed.), Beyond the Arab Spring: The Evolving Ruling Bargain in the Middle East. Oxford University Press, pp. 341–71.Google Scholar

Meernik, James. 1996. “United States Military Intervention and the Promotion of Democracy.” Journal of Peace Research, 33, 4: 391–402.Google Scholar

Mekouar, Merouan. 2016. Protest and Mass Mobilization. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Menjou, Leila and Elkatsha, Sherief. 2007. Egypt: We are Watching You. [Documentary film] New York: The Cinema Guild.Google Scholar

Messaoudi, Khalida and Schemla, Elisabeth. 1995. Unbowed: An Algerian Woman Confronts Islamic Fundamentalism. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar

Mill, J.S. 1858. System of Logic. New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers.Google Scholar

Moaddel, Mansoor. 2013. “The Birthplace of the Arab Spring: Values and Perceptions of Tunisians and a Comparative Assessment of Egyptian, Iraqi, Lebanese, Pakistani, Saudi, Tunisia, and Turkish Publics: A Report.” University of Michigan, Middle Eastern Values Study, December 15. http://mevs.org/files/tmp/Tunisia_FinalReport.pdfGoogle Scholar

Moghadam, Valentine M. 1993. Modernizing Women: Gender and Social Change in the Middle East, 1st ed. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar

Moghadam, Valentine M. 1998a. “The Women’s Movement in the Middle East and North Africa: Responding to Restructuring and Fundamentalism,” Women’s Studies Quarterly, 26, 3 & 4 (Fall/Winter): 57–67.Google Scholar

Moghadam, Valentine M. 1998b. Women, Work and Economic Reform in the Middle East. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar

Moghadam, Valentine M. 2001. “Organizing Women: The New Women’s Movement in Algeria.” Cultural Dynamics, 13, 2 (July): 131–54.Google Scholar

Moghadam, Valentine M. . 2003a. “Engendering Citizenship, Feminizing Civil Society: The Case of the Middle East and North Africa.” Women & Politics, 25, 1–2: 63–88.Google Scholar

Moghadam, Valentine M. 2003b. Modernizing Women: Gender and Social Change in the Middle East, 2nd ed. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar

Moghadam, Valentine M. 2004. “The Gender of Democracy: The Link between Women’s Rights and Democracy in the Middle East.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Arab Reform Bulletin, 2, 7 (July). www.carnegieendowment.org/arb/?fa=searchGoogle Scholar

Moghadam, Valentine M. 2005. “Women’s Economic Participation in the Middle East: What Difference Has the Neoliberal Policy Turn Made?” Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies, 1, 1 (Winter): 110–46.Google Scholar

Moghadam, Valentine M. 2011. “Algerian Women in Movement: Three Waves of Feminist Activism.” In Bergoffen, Debra, Gilbert, Paula Ruth, Harvey, Tamara, and McNeely, Connie L. (eds.), Confronting Global Gender Justice: Women’s Lives, Human Rights. Oxford: Routledge, pp. 180–99.Google Scholar

Moghadam, Valentine M. 2013a. Globalization and Social Movements: Islamism, Feminism, and the Global Justice Movement, 2nd ed. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar

Moghadam, Valentine M. 2013b. Modernizing Women: Gender and Social Change in the Middle East, 3rd ed. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar

Moghadam, Valentine M. 2013c. “What Is Democracy? Promises and Perils of the Arab Spring.” Current Sociology, 61, 4 (June): 393–408.Google Scholar

Moghadam, Valentine M. 2018. “Explaining Divergent Outcomes of the Arab Spring: The Significance of Gender and Women’s Mobilizations.” Politics, Groups, and Identities, 6, 4: 666–81.Google Scholar

Moghadam, Valentine M. 2019. “Women’s Employment in Tunisia: Structures, Institutions, Advocacy.” Sociology of Development, 5, 4 (December): 337–59.Google Scholar

Moghadam, Valentine M. 2020. “Gender Regimes in the Middle East and North Africa: The Power of Feminist Movements.” Social Politics, 27, 3: 467–85.Google Scholar

Moghadam, Valentine M. and Gheytanchi, Elham. 2010. “Political Opportunities and Strategic Choices: Comparing Feminist Campaigns in Morocco and Iran.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly of Social Movement Research, 15, 3 (September): 267–88.Google Scholar

Moghadam, Valentine M. and Mohr, Elizabeth. 2015. “Women’s Rights Organizations and Democratic Transitions: North Africa and Southeast Asia Compared.” Middle East Institute. www.mei.edu/publications/womens-rights-organizations-and-democratic-transitions-north-africa-and-southeast-asiaGoogle Scholar

Molyneux, Maxine. 1985. “Legal Reform and Socialist Revolution in Democratic Yemen: Women and the Family.” International Journal of Sociology of Law, 13: 147–72.Google Scholar

Molyneux, Maxine. 1987. “Building a New Life for Women in South Yemen: Interviews with Aisha Moshen and Noor Ba’abad.” In Davies, Miranda (ed.), Third World/Second Sex. London: Zed Books, pp. 135–42.Google Scholar

Moore, Barrington. 1966. Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.Google Scholar

Mullin, Corinna and Patel, Ian. 2015. “Governing Revolt: EU-North African Relations after the ‘Arab Spring’ Uprisings.” Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding, 9, 2: 162–89.Google Scholar

Munck, Gerardo L. and Skalnik Leff, Carol. 1997. “Modes of Transition and Democratization: South American and Eastern Europe in Comparative Perspective.” Comparative Politics, 29: 343–62.Google Scholar

Munck, Ronaldo. 2006. “Global Civil Society: Royal Road or Slippery Path?” Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 17 (December): 325–32.Google Scholar

Murphy, Emma. 1999. Tunisia: Economic and Political Change in Tunisia: From Bourguiba to Ben Ali. New York: St. Martin’s Press.Google Scholar

Murphy, Emma. 2014. “The Foreign Policy of Tunisia.” In Hinnebusch, Raymond and Ehteshami, Anoushiravan (ed.), The Foreign Policies of Middle East States, 2nd ed. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 233–60.Google Scholar

Muslimi, Farea al-. 2013. “Re-Emergence of the Yemeni Left.” Al-Monitor, November 25. www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/11/yemen-politics-left-reemergence.html#Google Scholar

Nagel, Robert. 2020. “Gendered Preferences: How Women’s Inclusion in Society Shapes Negotiation Occurrence in Intrastate Conflicts.” Journal of Peace Research. doi: 10.1177/0022343319899456Google Scholar

Nepstad, Sharon Erickson. 2011. Nonviolent Revolutions: Civil Resistance in the Late Twentieth Century. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Niblock, Tim and Murphy, Emma (eds.). 1993. Economic and Political Liberalization in the Middle East. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar

Norris, Pippa. 2012. “Political Mobilization and Social Networks. The Example of the Arab Spring.” In Stein, Michael and Trent, John (eds.), Electronic Democracy. Opladen: Barbara Budrich Publishers, pp. 55–76.Google Scholar

Norton, Augustus Richard (ed.). 1995. Civil Society in the Middle East, Vol. 1. Leiden: E.J. Brill.Google Scholar

Norton, Augustus Richard. 1996. Civil Society in the Middle East, Vol. 2. Leiden, New York & Cologne: E.J. Brill.Google Scholar

Nsaibia, Héni. 2018. “America Is Quietly Expanding Its War in Tunisia.” The National Interest, September 18. https://nationalinterest.org/blog/middle-east-watch/america-quietly-expanding-its-war-tunisia–31492Google Scholar

Obama, Barak and Essebsi, Béji Caïd. 2015. “Helping Tunisia Realize its Democratic Promise.” Washington Post, May 20. https://wapo.st/3pNXspQGoogle Scholar

Obeidi, Amal. 2008. “Political Elites in Libya since 1969.” In Vandewalle, (ed.), Libya since 1969: Qadhafi’s Revolution Revisited. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 105–26.Google Scholar

O’Donnell, Guillermo and Schmitter, Philippe. 1986. Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar

OECD (Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development). www.oecd.orgGoogle Scholar

Olivas-Leal, Daniel. 2014. “France Delivered Arms to Syrian Rebels, Hollande Confirms.” France24, August 21. www.france24.com/en/20140821-france-arms-syria-rebels-hollandeGoogle Scholar

Ottaway, Marina. 2011. “The New Moroccan Constitution: Real Change or More of the Same?” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, June 20. https://carnegieendowment.org/2011/06/20/new-moroccan-constitution-real-change-or-more-of-same-pub–44731Google Scholar

Ouedghiri, Rawiya. 2017. “The Scourge of Gender Inequality, Underage Marriage in Yemen.” Morocco World News, March 24. https://bit.ly/391qV9MGoogle Scholar

Oxfam. 2016. From the Ground Up: Gender and Conflict Analysis in Yemen. Report by Oxfam, Care, and GenCap (October). https://oxfamilibrary.openrepository.com/bitstream/handle/10546/620112/rr-yemen-gender-conflict-analysis-201016-en.pdf;sequence=1Google Scholar

Pace, Joe and Landis, Joshua. 2009. “The Syrian Opposition: The Struggle for Unity and Relevance, 2003–2008.” In Lawson, Fred H. (ed.), Demystifying Syria. London. Saqi, pp. 120–43.Google Scholar

Pace, Michelle. 2009. “Paradoxes and Contradictions in EU Democracy Promotion in the Mediterranean: The Limits of EU Normative Power.” Democratization, 16, 1: 39–58.Google Scholar

Pamuk, Humeyra and Tattersall, Nick. 2015. “Exclusive: Turkish Intelligence Helped Ship Arms to Syrian Islamist Rebel Areas.” Reuters, May 21. https://reut.rs/35VF0DXGoogle Scholar

Pandya, Sophia. 2012. Muslim Women and Islamic Resurgence: Religion, Education and Identity Politics in Bahrain. London: I.B. Tauris.Google Scholar

Paoletti, Emanuela. 2011. Libya: Roots a Civil Conflict.” Mediterranean Politics, 16, 2: 313–19.Google Scholar

Pargeter, Alison. 2010. “Libya.” In Kelly, Sanja and Breslin, Julia (eds.), Women’s Rights in the Middle East and North Africa: Progress amid Resistance. New York, Washington, Lanham: Freedom House and Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, pp. 283–310.Google Scholar

Parsa, Misagh. 2000. States, Ideologies, and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of Iran, Nicaragua, and the Philippines. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Paxton, Pamela and Hughes, Melanie. 2007. Women, Politics and Power. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Publishers.Google Scholar

Penney, Joe. 2018. “Why Did the US and Its Allies Bomb Libya? Corruption Case Against Sarkozy Sheds New Light on Ousting of Gaddafi.” The Intercept, April 28.Google Scholar

Pevenhouse, C. Jon. 2002. “Democracy from the Outside-In? International Organizations and Democratization.” International Organization, 56, 3: 515–49.Google Scholar

Pickard, Duncan. 2015. “Tunisia’s New Constitutional Court.” Atlantic Council. https://issuu.com/atlanticcouncil/docs/tunisiaconstcourt_0416Google Scholar

Pierret, Thomas. 2017. “Syrian Arab Republic.” In Gasiorowski, Mark and Yom, Sean L. (eds.), The Government and Politics of the Middle East and North Africa, 8th ed. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, pp. 41–59.Google Scholar

Pinto, Paulo G. 2007. “Pilgrimage, Commodities, and Religious Objectification: The Making of Transnational Shiism Between Iran and Syria.” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, 27, 1: 109–25.Google Scholar

Phillips, Sarah G. 2017. “Yemen.” In Lust, Ellen (ed.), The Middle East,14th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, pp. 895–916.Google Scholar

Phillips, Sarah G.. 2019. “Making al-Qai’da Legible: Counter-Terrorism and the Reproduction of Terrorism.” European Journal of International Relations, 25, 4: 1132–56.Google Scholar

Polling Report. “Syria.” www.pollingreport.com/syria.htmGoogle Scholar

Posusney, Marsha Pripstein. 1997. Labor and the State in Egypt: Workers, Unions, and Economic Restructuring. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar

Prashad, Vijay. 2012. Arab Spring, Libyan Winter. Oakland, CA: AK Press.Google Scholar

Pratt, Nicola. 2012. “The Gender Logics of Resistance to the ‘War on Terror’: Constructing Sex–Gender Difference Through the Erasure of Patriarchy in the Middle East.” Third World Quarterly, 33, 12: 1821–36.Google Scholar

Pratt, Nicola and Rezk, Dina. 2019. “Securitizing the Muslim Brotherhood: State Violence and Authoritarianism in Egypt After the Arab Spring.” Security Dialogue, 50, 3: 239–56.Google Scholar

Pridham, Geoffrey. 1997. “The International Dimension of Democratic Transition: Concepts and Hypotheses.” In Pridham, Geoffrey, Herring, Eric, and Sanford, George (eds.), The International Dimension of Democratisation. London: Leicester University Press, pp. 7–29.Google Scholar

Pridham, Geoffrey. 2000. The Dynamics of Democratization: A Comparative Approach. London: Continuum.Google Scholar

Przeworski, Adam. 1991. Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Przeworski, Adam, Alvarez, Michael E., Cheibub, Jose A., and Limongi, Fernando. 2000. Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950–1990. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Putnam, Robert. 2000. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar

Ramani, Samuel. 2015. “Why France Is So Deeply Entangled in Syria.” Washington Post, November 19. https://wapo.st/2IXUTR5Google Scholar

Rau, Zbigniew. 1991. The Reemergence of Civil Society in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. Boulder, CO: Westview.Google Scholar

Regan, M. Patrick and Aydin, Asyegul. 2006. “Diplomacy and Other Forms of Intervention in Civil Wars.” Journal of Conflict Resolution, 50, 5: 736–56.Google Scholar

Republique Tunisienne/IFED. 2018. “Recherche dans le registre national des association.” www.ifeda.org.tn/fr/index.php?lang=fr&id_page=5Google Scholar

Rettman, Andrew. 2011. “Top EU Official Defends Bahrain Crackdown.” Euobserver, March 23. http://euobserver.com/foreign/32038Google Scholar

Reuters. 2014. “Egypt Pays Back $2.5 billion Deposit to Qatar: Central Bank Official.” November 28. www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-qatar-idUSKCN0JC20J20141128Google Scholar

Reuters. 2019. “Syria’s Assad: Anybody Will Be Able to Run at 2021 Election.” November 11. www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-election/syrias-assad-anybody-will-be-able-to-run-at-2021-election-idUSKBN1XL0RKGoogle Scholar

Richards, Alan and Waterbury, John. 1996. A Political Economy of the Middle East. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar

Romdhani, Messaoud. 2012. “Origins of the Tunisian Revolution.” Alternatives International. www.alterinter.org/spip.php?article3888Google Scholar

Rosenau, N. James. 1966. “Pre-Theories and Theories of Foreign Policy.” In Barry Farrell, R. (ed.), Approaches to Comparative and International Politics. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, pp. 27–92.Google Scholar

Ross, Denis. 2012. “Egypt’s New Leaders Must Accept Reality.” Washington Post, August 19. https://wapo.st/3nFXpdMGoogle Scholar

Ross, Michael. 2001. “Does Oil Hinder Democracy?” World Politics, 53: 325–61.Google Scholar

Ross, Michael. 2008. “Oil, Islam, and Women.” American Political Science Review, 102, 1: 107–23.Google Scholar

Roudi-Fahimi, Farzaneh and Moghadam, Valentine M.. 2006. “Empowering Women, Developing Society: Female Education in the Middle East and North Africa.” Al-Raida, 23, 114: 4–11.Google Scholar

Roudi-Fahimi, Farzaneh. 2010. “Child Marriage in the Middle East and North Africa.” Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau (April). www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2010/menachildmarriage.aspxGoogle Scholar

Rueschemeyer, Dietrich, Stephens, Evelyne Huber, and Stephens, John D.. 1992. Capitalist Development and Democracy. Cambridge: Polity Press.Google Scholar

Sadiki, Larbi. 2000. “Popular Uprisings and Arab Democratization.” International Journal of Middle East Studies, 32, 1: 71–95.Google Scholar

Sadiki, Larbi. . 2019. “Regional Development in Tunisia: The Consequences of Multiple Marginalization.” Brookings Institution. https://brook.gs/36XH6CzGoogle Scholar

Sadiqi, Fatima. 2016. “An Assessment of Today’s Moroccan Feminist Movements (1946–2014).” In Ennaji, Moha, Sadiqi, Fatima and Vintges, Karen (eds.), Moroccan Feminisms: New Perspectives. London and Cape Town: Africa World Press, pp. 51–76.Google Scholar

Sadiqi, Fatima and Ennaji, Moha. 2006. “The Feminization of Public Space: Women’s Activism, the Family Law, and Social Change in Morocco.” Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies, 2, 2 (Summer): 86–114.Google Scholar

Sakkaf, Nadia al-. 2012. “Yemen’s Women and the Quest for Change.” October. http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/iez/09434.pdfGoogle Scholar

Salamé, Ghassan (ed.). 1994. Democracy without Democrats? The Renewal of Politics in the Muslim World. London and New York: I.B. Taurus.Google Scholar

Salhi, Zahia Smail (ed.). 2010. Gender and Diversity in the Middle East and North Africa. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

Salime, Zakia. 2011. Between Feminism and Islam: Human rights and Sharia Law in Morocco. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar

Salime, Zakia. 2012. “A New Feminism? Gender Dynamics in Morocco’s February 20th Movement.” Journal of International Women’s Studies, 13, 5: 101–14.Google Scholar

Salime, Zakia. . 2019. “Precarious Teachers Strike for Public Education in Morocco.” Middle East Report Online (May 2002). https://bit.ly/3poUOGFGoogle Scholar

Samuel, Nabil. 1995. “Egyptian NGOs and Civil Society.” Ru’ya, 6 (Winter): 25–9.Google Scholar

Sanders-Zakre, Alicia. 2019. “What You Need to Know about Chemical Weapons Use in Syria.” Arms Control Association, March 14. www.armscontrol.org/blog/2018–09-23/what-you-need-know-about-chemical-weapons-use-syriaGoogle Scholar

Sater, James M. 2007. “Changing Politics from Below? Women Parliamentarians in Morocco.” Democratization, 14, 4 (August): 723–42.Google Scholar

Sater, James M.. 2012. “Reserved Seats, Patriarchy, and Patronage in Morocco.” In Franceschet, Susan, Krook, Mona L., and Piscopo, Jennifer M. (eds.), The Impact of Gender Quotas. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 72–86.Google Scholar

Schemm, Paul. 2003. “Egypt: Mubarak struggles to control anti-war protests.” GreenLeft Weekly, April 16. www.greenleft.org.au/content/egypt-mubarak-struggles-control-anti-war-protestsGoogle Scholar

Schlumberger, Oliver. 2007. “Arab Authoritarianism.” In Schlumberger, Oliver (ed.), Debating Arab Authoritarianism. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, pp. 1–20.Google Scholar

Seligman, Adam. 1992. The Idea of Civil Society. New York: The Free Press.Google Scholar

Schmitter, C. Philippe. 2001. “The Influence of the International Context upon the Choice of National Institutions and Policies in Neo-Democracies.” In Whitehead, Laurence (ed.), The International Dimensions of Democratization: Europe and the Americas. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 26–54.Google Scholar

Schmitz, Hans Peter and Sell, Katrin. 1999. “International Factors in Processes of Political Democratization: Towards a Theoretical Integration.” In Grugel, Jean (ed.), Democracy without Borders: Transnationalization and Conditionality in New Democracies. New York: Routledge, pp. 23–41.Google Scholar

Schwedler, Jillian. 2006. Faith in Moderation. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Scott, Andrew M. 1967. The Functioning of the International System. New York: The MacMillan Company.Google Scholar

Sezer, Can. 2011. “Turkey Shrugs off Syria Free Trade Suspension.” Reuters, December 5. https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-turkey-syria-trade/turkey-shrugs-off-syria-free-trade-suspension-idUKTRE7B40ZB2011120Google Scholar

Shalaby, Marwa. 2016. “Challenges Facing Women’s Political Participation Post Arab Spring: The Cases of Egypt and Tunisia.” In Shalaby, Marwa and Moghadam, Valentine M. (eds.), Empowering Women after the Arab Spring. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 171–91.Google Scholar

Shalaby, Marwa and Moghadam, Valentine M.. 2016. Empowering Women after the Arab Spring. London: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar

Sharp, M. Jeremy. 2005. “The Broader Middle East and North Africa Initiative: An Overview.” Congressional Research Service, February 15. https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RS22053.pdfGoogle Scholar

Sharp, M. Jeremy. 2018. “Egypt: Background and U.S. Relations.” Congressional Research Service, June 7. https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL33003.pdfGoogle Scholar

Sharp, M. Jeremy. 2019. “Yemen: Civil War and Regional Intervention.” Congressional Research Service. www.everycrsreport.com/files/20190917_R43960_0ae8aef063532aa48081bbedecd442b10277aa42.pdfGoogle Scholar

Sharabi, Hisham. 1988. Neopatriarchy: A Theory of Distorted Change in Arab Society. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Sharqieh, Ibrahim. 2013. “A Lasting Peace? Yemen’s Long Journey to National Reconciliation.” Brookings Doha Center. www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/BDC_Yemen-National-Reconciliation_Sharqieh.pdfGoogle Scholar

Shea, Joey. 2020. “Global Tech and Domestic Tactics: Egypt’s Multifaceted Regime of Information Controls.” The Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy, January 31. https://timep.org/commentary/analysis/global-tech-and-domestic-tactics-egypts-multifaceted-regime-of-information-controls/Google Scholar

Shear, Michael D., Cooper, Helene, and Schmitt, Eric. 2015. “Obama Administration Ends Effort to Train Syrians to Combat ISIS.” New York Times, October 9. www.nytimes.com/2015/10/10/world/middleeast/pentagon-program-islamic-state-syria.htmlGoogle Scholar

Sieverding, Maia, Krafft, Caroline, and Berri, Nasma. 2018. “How are Families Changing in Jordan? New Evidence on Marriage and Fertility Trends among Jordanians and Syrian Refugees.” Economic Research Forum Policy Brief, 35 (May).Google Scholar

Sikkink, Kathryn. 2012. The Justice Cascade: How Human Rights Prosecutions Are Changing World Politics. New York: W.W. Norton.Google Scholar

Singerman, Diane. 1995. Avenues of Participation: Family, Politics, and Networks in Urban Quarters of Cairo. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Singerman, Diane. 2002. “The Politics of Emergency Rule in Egypt.” Current History, 101: 29–35.Google Scholar

Singerman, Diane. 2013. “Youth, Gender, and Dignity in the Egyptian Uprising.” Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies, 9, 3 (Fall): 1–27.Google Scholar

Sinjab, Lina. 2012. “Women Play Central Role in Syria Uprising.” BBC, March 13. www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east–17341613Google Scholar

SIPRI (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute). https://sipri.org/Google Scholar

Skalli, Loubna Hanna. 2007. “Women, Communications and Democratization in Morocco.” In Moghadam, Valentine M. (ed.), Empowering Women: Participation, Rights, and Women’s Movements in the Middle East, North Africa, and South Asia. New York: Syracuse University Press, pp. 120–38.Google Scholar

Skocpol, Theda. 1979. States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, China. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Skocpol, Theda. 1982. “Rentier State and Shi’a Islam in the Iranian Revolution.” Theory and Society, 11, 3: 265–83.Google Scholar

Smith, Jackie, Chatfield, Charles, and Pagnucco, Ron (eds.). 1997. Transnational Social Movements and Global Politics. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.Google Scholar

Sonay, Ali. 2018. Making Revolution in Egypt: The 6 April Youth Movement in a Global Context. London: Bloomsbury Academic.Google Scholar

Spellman-Poots, Kathryn. 2011. “Women in the New Libya: Challenges Ahead.” December 23. https://opendemocracy.net/5050/kathryn-spellman-poots/women-in-new-libya-challenges-aheadGoogle Scholar

Springborg, Robert. 2011. “The Political Economy of the Arab Spring.” Mediterranean Politics, 16, 3: 427–33.Google Scholar

Stacher, Joshua. 2012. Adaptable Autocrats: Regime Power in Egypt and Syria. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Steil, Benn. 2019. The Marshall Plan: Dawn of the Cold War. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Stepan, Alfred. 2012. “Tunisia’s Transition and the Twin Tolerations.” Journal of Democracy, 23, 2: 89–103.Google Scholar

Stephan, Rita and Charrad, Mounira (eds.). 2020. Women Rising: In and Beyond the Arab Spring. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar

Stradiotto, Gary A. and Guo, Sujian. 2010. “Transitional Modes of Democratization and Democratic Outcomes.” International Journal on World Peace, 27, 4 (December): 5–40.Google Scholar

Survival. 1981. “Soviet-Syrian Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation 8 October 1980.” www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00396338108441945Google Scholar

Sussman, Anna Louie. 2011. “Prominent During Revolution, Egyptian Women Vanish in New Order.” The Atlantic, April 13. www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2011/04/prominent-during-revolution-egyptian-women-vanish-in-new-order/237232/Google Scholar

Svolik, Milan W. 2012. The Politics of Authoritarian Rule. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Systemic Peace. Polity IV dataset. www.systemicpeace.org/polityproject.htmlGoogle Scholar

Tadros, Mariz. 2010. “Egypt.” In Kelly, Sanja and Breslin, Julia (eds.), Women’s Rights in the Middle East and North Africa: Progress and Resistance. Washington, DC and Lanham, MD: Freedom House and Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, pp. 89–120.Google Scholar

Tadros, Mariz. 2013. “Egypt’s Scorched Earth.” www.acdhrs.org/2013/08/egypts-scorched-earth-mariz-tadros/Google Scholar

Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy, The. 2019. “Use of Surveillance Technology in MENA.” https://timep.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/UseOfSurveillanceTechMENA-IssueBrief10-21-19-1.pdfGoogle Scholar

Tansey, Oisin, Koehler, Kevin, and Schmotz, Alexander. 2017. “Ties to the Rest: Autocratic Linkages and Regime Survival.” Comparative Political Studies, 50, 9: 1221–54.Google Scholar

Taylor, Verta. 1989. “Social Movement Continuity: The Women’s Movement in Abeyance.” American Sociological Review, 54, 5 (October): 761–75.Google Scholar

Tchaicha, Jane and Arfaoui, Khedija. 2012. “Tunisian Women in the Twenty-First Century: Past Achievements and Present Uncertainties in the Wake of the Jasmine Revolution.” The Journal of North African Studies, 1, 2: 215–38.Google Scholar

Tchaicha, Jane and Arfaoui, Khedija. 2017. The Tunisian Women’s Rights Movement: From Nascent Activism to Influential Power-broking. London: Routledge.Google Scholar

TDC (Truth and Dignity Commission [Tunisia]). 2019. “The Final Comprehensive Report: Executive Summary.” Tunis, May. www.ivd.tn/rapport/doc/TDC_executive_summary_report.pdfGoogle Scholar

Thelen, Kathleen and Steinmo, Sven. 1992. “Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Politics.” In Steinmo, Sven, Thelen, Kathleen, and Longstreth, Frank (eds.), Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Analysis. New York and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–29.Google Scholar

Thompson, Mark. 1995. The Anti-Marcos Struggle: Personalistic Rule and Democratic Transition in the Philippines. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar

Tilly, Charles. 1978. From Mobilization to Revolution. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Tilly, Charles. 1985. “War Making and State Making as Organized Crime.” In Evans, Peter, Rueschemeyer, Dietrich, and Skocpol, Theda (eds.), Bringing the State Back In. New York and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 169–91.Google Scholar

Tilly, Charles and Tarrow, Sidney. 2015. Contentious Politics. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Timm, Trevor and York, Jillian C. 2012. “Surveillance Inc: How Western Tech Firms are Helping Arab Dictators.” The Atlantic, March 6. www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/03/surveillance-inc-how-western-tech-firms-are-helping-arab-dictators/254008/Google Scholar

Toumi, Habib. 2011. “GCC Marshall-style aid package for Bahrain, Oman.” Gulf News, March 2. https://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/bahrain/gcc-marshall-style-aid-package-for-bahrain-oman-1.770473Google Scholar

Transfeld, Mareike. 2014. “Some Thoughts on Supporting Civil Society Organizations in Yemen.” February 22. http://muftah.org/thoughts-supporting-civil-society-organizations-yemen/#.U_0aYkvgDucGoogle Scholar

Tripp, Charles. 2013. The Power and the People: Paths of Resistance in the Middle East. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Ulrichsen, Kristian Coates. 2014. Qatar and the Arab Spring. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

UN CEDAW. 2000. Combined Third and Fourth Periodic Reports of States Parties: Tunisia. New York: CEDAW/C/TUN/3–4.Google Scholar

UN News. 2020. “Yemen: Humanitarians Seeking $2.41 Billion to Keep Aid Flowing Amid COVID-19 Pandemic.” https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/05/1064992Google Scholar

UN Women. 2014. “We Just Keep Silent: Gender-Based Violence among Syrian Refugees in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq.” April. http://uniraq.org/images/documents/We%20Just%20Keep%20Silent%20final%20English.pdfGoogle Scholar

UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development). www.unctad.orgGoogle Scholar

UNDP (United Nations Development Program). 2004. The Arab Human Development Report: Towards Freedom in the Arab World. New York: United Nations Development Programme.Google Scholar

UNDP (United Nations Development Program). 2014. “Partnership Framework between the Government of Yemen and Civil Society Organizations.” March 4. www.ye.undp.org/content/dam/yemen/DemDov/Docs/UNDP-YEM-GoY-CSO%20EN.pdfGoogle Scholar

UNDPADM (United Nations Division for Public Administration and Development Management). 2004. “Syrian Arab Republic Public Administration Country Profile.” September. http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan023183.pdfGoogle Scholar

UNHRC (United Nations Human Rights Council). 2019. “The U.N. Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, Chemical Weapons Attacks.” www.ohchr.org/SiteCollectionImages/Bodies/HRCouncil/IICISyria/COISyria_CW_12.03.2019_web.jpgGoogle Scholar

United States Congress. 2017. “H.R. 157-Combatting Terrorism in Tunisia Emergency Support Act of 2017.” www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/157/text?format=txtGoogle Scholar

United States Department of State. “U.S. Relations with Morocco.” www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-morocco/Google Scholar

United States Energy Information Administration. www.eia.gov/Google Scholar

UNSMIL (United Nations Support Mission in Libya). 2014. “Briefing by Bernardino León SRGS for Libya-meeting of the Security Council 15 September 2014.” https://unsmil.unmissions.org/briefing-bernardino-le%C3%B3n-srsg-libya-meeting-security-council-15-september–2014Google Scholar

UNSMIL (United Nations Support Mission in Libya). 2015. “Libyan Political Agreement.” 17 December. https://unsmil.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/Libyan%20Political%20Agreement%20-%20ENG%20.pdfGoogle Scholar