Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-94fs2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-08T02:27:18.436Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

14 - Neuroendocrine Functioning in Maltreated Children

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 August 2009

By
Dante Cicchetti
Edited by
Dante Cicchetti  and
Elaine F. Walker
Dante Cicchetti
Affiliation:
Mt. Hope Family Center, University of Rochester
Dante Cicchetti
Affiliation:
University of Rochester, New York
Elaine F. Walker
Affiliation:
Emory University, Atlanta
Get access

Summary

Cicchetti and Lynch (1995) asserted that child maltreatment may represent the greatest failure of the caregiving environment to provide many of the expectable experiences that are necessary to facilitate normal developmental processes. Maltreating parents also may be viewed as an aberration of the supportive, nurturant, sensitive, and protective adults that are expected by children in the evolutionary context of species-typical development (Belsky, 1984; Cicchetti & Lynch, 1995; Howes, Cicchetti, Toth, & Rogosch, 2000; Rogosch, Cicchetti, Shields, & Toth, 1995).

In contrast to what is anticipated in response to an average expectable environment, the ecological, social, biological, and psychological conditions that are associated with maltreatment set in motion a probabilistic path of epigenesis for maltreated children characterized by an increased likelihood of failure and disruption in the successful resolution of major stage-salient tasks of development, resulting in grave implications for functioning across the lifespan (Cicchetti, 1989; Cicchetti & Lynch, 1993; Egeland, 1997; Malinosky-Rummell & Hansen, 1993). These repeated developmental disruptions create a profile of relatively enduring vulnerability factors that increase the probability of the emergence of maladaptation and psychopathology as negative transactions between the child and the environment continue (Cicchetti & Lynch, 1993; Cicchetti & Rizley, 1981).

The notion that an average expectable environment is required for species-typical development suggests that competent outcomes in maltreated children should be highly improbable due to wide-ranging disturbances in the maltreatment ecology (Cicchetti & Lynch, 1993).

Type
Chapter
Information
Neurodevelopmental Mechanisms in Psychopathology , pp. 345 - 365
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2003

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the Teacher's Report Form and 1991 Profile. Burlington: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry
Aguilar, B., Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., & Carlson, E. (2000). Distinguishing the early onset/persistent and adolescence-onset antisocial behavioral types: From birth to 16 years. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 109–132CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnett, D., Ganiban, J., & Cicchetti, D. (1999). Maltreatment, negative expressivity, and the development of Type D attachments from 12- to 24-months of age. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 64, 97–118CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnett, D., Manly, J. T., & Cicchetti, D. (1993). Defining child maltreatment: The interface between policy and research. In D. Cicchetti and S. L. Toth (Eds.), Child abuse, child development, and social policy (pp. 7–73). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing
Belsky, J. (1984). The determinants of parenting: A process model. Child Development, 55, 83–96CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Black, J. E., & Greenough, W. T. (1992). Induction of pattern in neural structure by experience: Implications for cognitive development. In M. Lamb, A. Brown, & B. Rogoff (Eds.), Advances in developmental psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 1–50). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
Black, J. E., Jones, T. A., Nelson, C. A., & Greenough, W. T. (1998). Neuronal plasticity and the developing brain. In N. E. Alessi, J. T. Coyle, S. I. Harrison, & S. Eth (Eds.), Handbook of child and adolescent psychiatry (pp. 31–53). New York: Wiley
Bolger, K. E., Patterson, C. J., & Kupersmidt, J. B. (1998). Peer relationships and self esteem among children who have been maltreated. Child Development, 69, 1171–1197CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bremner, J. D., & Vermetten, E. (2001). Stress and development: Behavioral and biological consequences. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 473–490CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carlson, V., Cicchetti, D., Barnett, D., & Braunwald, K. (1989). Disorganized/disoriented attachment relationships in maltreated infants. Developmental Psychology, 25, 525–531CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T. E., Mill, J., Martin, J., Craig, I. W., Taylor, A., & Poulton, R. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science, 297, 851–854CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D. (1989). How research on child maltreatment has informed the study of child development: Perspectives from developmental psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti and V. Carlson (Eds.), Child maltreatment: theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 377–431). New York: Cambridge University PressCrossRef
Cicchetti, D. (1990). The organization and coherence of socioemotional, cognitive, and representational development: Illustrations through a developmental psychopathology perspective on Down syndrome and child maltreatment. In R. Thompson (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Vol. 36. Socioemotional development (pp. 259–366). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press
Cicchetti, D. (1991). Fractures in the crystal: Developmental psychopathology and the emergence of the self. Developmental Review, 11, 271–287CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (Ed.) (1994). Special Issue: Advances and challenges in the study of the sequelae of child maltreatment. Development and Psychopathology, 6(1), 1–247
Cicchetti, D. (2002a). How a child builds a brain: Insights from normality and psychopathology. In W. Hartup and R. Weinberg (Eds.) Child Psychology in Retrospect and Prospect: Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology, Volume 35 (pp. 23–71). Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum
Cicchetti, D. (2002b). The impact of social experience on neurobiological systems: Illustration from a constructivist view of child maltreatment. Cognitive Development, 17, 1407–1428CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Cannon, T. D. (1999) Neurodevelopmental processes in the ontogenesis and epigenesis of psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 375–393CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Carlson, V. (Eds.). (1989). Child maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect. New York: Cambridge University Press
Cicchetti, D., & Dawson, G. (2002). Multiple levels of analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 417–420CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Lynch, M. (1993). Toward an ecological/transactional model of community violence and child maltreatment: Consequences for children's development. Psychiatry, 56, 96–118CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Lynch, M. (1995). Failures in the expectable environment and their impact on individual development: The case of child maltreatment. In D. Cicchetti & D. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (pp. 32–71). Vol. 2 Risk, disorder, and adaptation. New York: Wiley
Cicchetti, D., & Manly, J. T. (1990). A personal perspective on conducting research with maltreating families: Problems and solutions. In G. Brody and I. Sigel (Eds.), Methods of family research: Volume 2: Families at risk (pp. 87–133). Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum
Cicchetti, D., & Manly, J. T. (Eds.) (2001). Operationalizing child maltreatment: Developmental proceses and outcomes. Special Issue: Developmental and Psychopathology, 13 (4), 755–1048
Cicchetti, D., & Rizley, R. (1981). Developmental perspectives on the etiology, intergenerational transmission and sequelae of child maltreatment. New Directions for Child Development, 11, 31–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1997) The role of self-organization in the promotion of resilience in maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 799–817CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2001a). Diverse patterns of neuroendocrine activity in maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 677–694CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2001b). The impact of child maltreatment and psychopathology upon neuroendocrine functioning. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 783–804Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (1995). A developmental psychopathology perspective on child abuse and neglect. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 541–565CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2000). Developmental processes in maltreated children. In D. Hansen (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Vol. 46: Child Maltreatment (pp. 85–160). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2003). Child maltreatment: A research and policy agenda for the dawn of the Millennium. In R. P. Weissberg, L. H. Weiss, O. Reyes, and H. J. Walberg (Eds.), Trends in the well-being of children and youth: Volume 2 (pp. 181–206). Washington, D.C.: CWLA Press
Cicchetti, D., & Tucker, D. (1994). Development and self-regulatory structures of the mind. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 533–549CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Walker, E. F. (Eds.) (2001). Stress and development: biological and psychological consequences. Special Issue: Development and Psychopathology, 13, (3), 413–753CrossRef
Cohen, P., Brown, J., & Smailes, E. (2001). Child abuse and neglect and the development of mental disorders in the general population. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 981–1000Google ScholarPubMed
Courchesne, E., Chisum, H., & Townsend, J. (1994). Neural activity-dependent brain charges in development: Implications for psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 697–722CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummings, E. M., Hennessy, K. D., Rabideau, G. J., & Cicchetti, D. (1994). Responses of physically abused boys to interadult anger involving their mothers. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 31–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dahl, R., & Ryan, N. (1996). The psychobiology of adolescent depression. In D. Cicchetti and S. L. Toth (Eds.), Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology: Vol. 7. Adolescence: Opportunities and Challenges (pp. 197–232). Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press
Bellis, M. D. (2001). Developmental traumatology: The psychobiological development of maltreated children and its implications for research, treatment, and policy. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 539–564CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bellis, M. D., Baum, A. S., Birmaher, B., Keshavan, M. S., Eccard, C. H., Boring, A. M., Jenkins, F. J., & Ryan, N. D. (1999). Developmental traumatology Part I: Biological stress systems. Biological Psychiatry, 45, 1259–1270CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bellis, M. D., Chrousos, G., Dorn, L., Burke, L., Helmers, K., Kling, M., Trickett, P., & Putnam, F. (1993). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysregulation in sexually abused girls. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 77, 1–7Google Scholar
Bellis, M. D., Hall, J., Boring, A., Frustaci, K., & Moritz, G. (2001). A pilot longitudinal study of hippocampal volumes in pediatric maltreatment-related posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 50, 305–309Google ScholarPubMed
Bellis, M. D., Keshavan, M., Clark, D. B., Casey, B. J., Giedd, J., Boring, A. M., Frustaci, K., & Ryan, N. D. (1999). Developmental traumatology Part II: Characteristics of trauma and psychiatric symptoms and adverse brain development in maltreated children and adolescents with PTSD. Biological Psychiatry, 45, 1271–1284Google Scholar
Bellis, M. D., Keshavan, M., Spencer, S., & Hall, J. (2000). N-acetylaspartate concentration in the anterior cingulate in maltreated children and adolescents with PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry, 257, 1175–1177CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bellis, M. D., Leffer, L., Trickett, P. K., & Putnam, F. W. (1994). Urinary catecholamine excretion in sexually abused girls. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 320–327CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bellis, M. D., & Putnam, F. W. (1994). The psychobiology of childhood maltreatment. Child and adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 3, 663–678Google Scholar
DeKloet, E. R. (1991). Brain corticosteroid receptor and balance homeostatic control. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 12, 95–164Google Scholar
Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (1990). Mechanisms in the cycle of violence. Science, 250, 1678–1683CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Egeland, B. (1997). Mediators of the effects of child maltreatment on developmental adaptation in adolescence. In D. Cicchetti and S. L. Toth (Eds.), Developmental perspectives on trauma: Theory, research, and intervention. Rochester symposium on developmental psychology, Vol. 8. (pp. 403–434). Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press
Famularo, R., Kinscherff, R., & Fenton, T. (1992). Psychiatric diagnoses of maltreated children: Preliminary findings. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 863–867CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gould, E., & Tanapat, P. (1999). Stress and hippocampal neurogenesis. Biological Psychiatry, 46, 1472–1479CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gould, E., Tanapat, P., McEwen, B. S., Flugge, G., & Fuchs, E. (1998). Proliferation of granule cell precursors in the denate gyrus of adult monkeys is diminished by stress. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 85, 3168–3171CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenberg, S. A. (2001). DNA microarray gene expression analysis technology and its application to neurological disorders. Neurology, 57, 755–761CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenough, W., Black, J., & Wallace, C. (1987). Experience and brain development. Child Development, 58, 539–559CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., Morison, S. J., Chisholm, K., & Schuder, M. (2001). Salivary cortisol levels in children adopted from Romanian orphanages. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 3, 629–652Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., & Vazquez, D. M. (2001). Low cortisol and a flattening of expected daytime rhythm: Potential indices of risk in human development. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 515–538CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hart, J., Gunnar, M., & Cicchetti, D. (1995). Salivary cortisol in maltreated children: Evidence of relations between neuroendocrine activity and social competence. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 11–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hart, J., Gunnar, M., & Cicchetti, D. (1996). Altered neuroendocrine activity in maltreated children related to depression. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 201–214CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heim, C., Ehlert, U., & Hellhammer, D. (2000). The potential role of hypocortisolism in the pathophysiology of stress-related bodily disorders. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 25, 1–35CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heim, C., Newport, D. J., Bonsall, R., Miller, A. H., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2001). Altered pituitary-adrenal axis responses to provocative challenge tests in adult survivors of childhood abuse. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 575–581CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hennessy, K. D., Rabideau, G. J., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, E. M. (1994). Responses of physically abused and nonabused children to different forms of interadult anger. Child Development, 65, 815–828CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howes, P., Ciccchetti, D., Toth, S. L., & Rogosch, F. (2000). Affective, organizational, and relational characteristics of maltreating families: A systems perspective. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 95–110CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, M. H. (1998). The neural basis of cognitive development. In W. Damon (Series Ed.), D. Kuhn, R. Seigler (Vol. Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 2. Cognition, perception, and language (pp. 1–49). New York: Wiley
Kalin, N. H., & Takahashi, L. K. (1990). Fear-motivated behavior induced by prior shock experience is mediated by corticotropin-releasing hormone systems. Brain Research, 509, 80–84CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaufman, J. (1991). Depressive disorders in maltreated children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 257–265CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaufman, J., Birmaher, B., Perel, J., Dahl, R. E., Moreci, P., Nelson, B., Wells, W., & Ryan, N. D. (1997). The corticotropic-releasing hormone challenge in depressed abused, depressed nonbused, and normal control children. Biological Psychiatry, 42, 669–679CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaufman, J., Plotsky, P. M., Nemeroff, C. B., & Charney, D. S. (2000). Effects of early adverse experiences on brain structure and function: Clinical implications. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 778–790CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirschbaum, C., & Hellhammer, D. H. (1989). Salivary cortisol in psychobiology research: An overview. Neuropsychobiology, 22, 150–169CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kovacs, M. (1985). The children's depression inventory. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 21, 995–998Google ScholarPubMed
Lemieux, A. M., & Coe, C. L. (1999). Abuse-related posttraumatic stress disorder: Evidence for chronic neuroendocrine activation in women. Psychosomatic Medicine, 57, 110–115Google Scholar
Levine, S. (1994). The ontogeny of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis: The influence of maternal factors. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 746, 275–288CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lopez, J. F., Akil, H., & Watson, S. J. (1999). Neural circuits mediating stress. Biological Psychology, 46, 1461–1471CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lupien, S. J., King, S., Meaney, M. J., & McEwen, B. S. (2001). Can poverty get under your skin? Basal cortisol levels and cognitive function in children from low and high socioeconomic status. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 653–676CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71, 543–562CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malinosky-Rummell, R., & Hansen, D. (1993). Long-term consequences of childhood physical abuse. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 68–79CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manly, J. T., Cicchetti, D., & Barnett, D. (1994). The impact of subtype, frequency, chronicity, and severity of child maltreatment on social competence and behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 121–143CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manly, J. T., Kim, J. E., Rogosch, F. A., & Cicchetti, D. (2001). Dimensions of child maltreatment and children's adjustment: Contributions of developmental timing and subtype. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 759–782Google ScholarPubMed
Maughan, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2002). The impact of child maltreatment and interadult violence on children's emotion regulation abilities. Child Development, 73, 1525–1542CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McBurnett, K., King, J., & Scarpa, A. (this volume). The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal System (HPA) and the development of aggressive, antisocial, and substance abuse disorders
McBurnett, K., Lahey, B. B., Rathouz, P. J., & Loeber, R. (2000). Low salivary cortisol and persistent aggression in boys referred for disruptive behavior. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 38–43CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McEwen, B. S. (1994). Steroid actions in the brain: When is the genome involved? Hormones and Behavior, 28, 396–405CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McEwen, B. S. (1998). Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. Seminars in Medicine of the Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, 338, 171–179Google ScholarPubMed
McEwen, B. S. (2000). Effects of adverse environments for brain structure and function. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 721–731CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGloin, J. M., & Widom, C. S. (2001). Resilience among abused and neglected children. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 1021–1038CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meaney, M. J., Diorio, J., Francis, D., Widdowson, J., LaPlante, P., Caldji, C., Sharma, S., Seckl, J., & Plotsky, P. (1996). Early environmental regulation of forebrain glucocorticoid receptor gene expression: Implications for adrenocortical responses to stress. Developmental Neuroscience, 18, 49–72CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E. (1993a). Life course persistent and adolescence limited antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674–701CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (1993b). The neuropsychology of conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 135–151CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nelson, C. A., & Bloom, F. E. (1997). Child development and neuroscience. Child Development, 68, 970–987CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plotsky, P. M., & Meaney, M. J. (1993). Early, postnatal experience alters hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) mRNA, median eminence CRF content and stress-induced release in adult rats. Molecular Brain Research, 18, 195–200CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pollak, S. D., Cicchetti, D., & Klorman, R. (1998). Stress, memory, and emotion: Developmental considerations from the study of child maltreatment. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 811–828CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pollak, S. D., Cicchetti, D., Klorman, R., & Brumaghim, J. T. (1997). Cognitive brain event-related potentials and emotion processing in maltreated children. Child Development, 68, 773–787CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Post, R. M., Leverich, G. S., Weiss, S. R. B., Zhang, L., Xing, G., Li, H., & Smith, M. (this volume). Psychosocial stressors as predisposing factors to affective illness and PTSD: Potential neurobiological mechanisms and theoretical implications
Putnam, F. W., Trickett, P. K., Helmers, K., Dorn, L., & Everett, B. (1991). Cortisol abnormalities in sexually abused girls. Proceedings of the 144th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, 107
Pynoos, R., Steinberg, A., & Wraith, R. (1995). A developmental model for childhood traumatic stress. In D. Cicchetti & D. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Risk, disorder, and adaptation (pp. 72–95). New York: Wiley
Rogosch, F. A., Cicchetti, D., & Aber, J. L. (1995). The role of child maltreatment in early deviations in cognitive and affective processing abilities and later peer relationship problems. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 591–609CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogosch, F., Cicchetti, D., Shields, A., & Toth, S. L. (1995). Parenting dysfunction in child maltreatment. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 4 (pp. 127–159). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
Sanchez, M. M., Ladd, C. O., & Plotsky, P. M. (2001). Early adverse experience as a developmental risk factor for later psychopathology: Evidence from rodent and primate models. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 419–450CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sapolsky, R. M. (1992). Stress, the aging brain, and the mechanisms of neuron death. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press
Sapolsky, R. M. (1996). Stress, glucocorticoids, and damage to the NS: The current state of confusion. Stress, 1, 1–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sapolsky, R. M., Krey, L., & McEwen, B. (1984). Glucocorticoid-sensitive hippocampal neurons are involved in terminating the adrenal stress response. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States, 81, 6174–6177CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shields, A. M., Cicchetti, D., & Ryan, R. M. (1994). The development of emotional and behavioral self regulation and social competence among maltreated school-age children. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 57–75CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shields, A. M., & Cicchetti, D. (1998). Reactive aggression among maltreated children: The contributions of attention and emotion dysregulation. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 381–395CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shonk, S. M., & Cicchetti, D. (2001). Maltreatment, competency deficits, and risk for academic and behavioral maladjustment. Developmental Psychology, 37, 3–14CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, C. A., & Thornberry, T. (1995). The relationship between child maltreatment and adolescent involvement in delinquency. Criminology, 33, 451–481CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spear, L. P. (2000). The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 24, 417–463CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spear, L. P. (this volume). Neurodevelopment during adolescence
Teicher, M. H. (2000). Wounds that time won't heal: The neurobiology of child abuse. Cerebrum, 2, 50–67Google Scholar
Thompson, R. A., & Nelson, C. A. (2001). Developmental science and the media: Early brain development. American Psychologist, 56, 5–15CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toth, S. L., Cicchetti, D., Macfie, J., & Emde, R. N. (1997). Representations of self and other in the narratives of neglected, physically abused, and sexually abused preschoolers. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 781–796CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trickett, P., & McBride-Chang, C. (1995). The developmental impact of different types of child abuse and neglect. Developmental Review, 15, 311–337CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vazquez, D. M. (1998). Stress and the developing limbic-hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 23 663–700CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, E. F., & Walder, D. (this volume). Neurohormonal aspects of the development of psychotic disorders
Walker, E. F., Walder, D., & Reynolds, F. (2001). Developmental changes in cortisol secretion in normal and at-risk youth. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 721–732CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watson, C., & Gametchu, B. (1999). Membrane-initiated steroid actions and the proteins that mediate them. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 220, 9–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Widom, C. (1989). The cycle of violence. Science, 244, 160–166CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×