Different modalities for communicating subscore information, across varied testing purposes and audiences, are illustrated through excerpts from real score reports. Connections to general score reporting best practices and development are discussed.

Between 1500 and 1800, Iberian society was characterized by high inequality of income and wealth, low real wages that stimulated working relatively long hours and days, and some expansion consumption focused on low-quality manufactures. Despite the high levels of wealth of the upper groups living in large urban centers such as Madrid, Lisbon or Seville, Iberian consumption patterns did not experience a consumption revolution as they were highly conditioned by relatively low living standards. Although the second half of the eighteenth century was a turning point in Portugal and Spain – due to a reduction in the price of manufactured goods and greater openness to cultural foreign influences – economic and social changes excluded many disadvantaged groups of low-income earners, women, young children and poor people.

This chapter aims at placing the history of Spain and Portugal in a global context to revise many of the commonplaces that have been present for centuries about the history of both countries. It also explains this history in a comparative perspective with reference to other European countries as well as other imperial formations. Special attention is given to the different institutional systems and the political fragmentation of the Iberian Peninsula, as well as to the evolution of the different models of regional development. This also makes it possible to break with nationalizing visions of its economic performance, while the different regional trajectories and their connections are interpreted as part of a peninsular system that does not differ qualitatively from that of other regions of Europe, particularly Mediterranean Europe.The result is a more nuanced, less pessimistic – far from exceptionalism – and more realistic picture of peninsular history and a reflection on how that history has been influenced by imperial systems and globalization.

This chapter uses a case-based approach to describe electrographic patterns associated with coma. These are rare and, though non-specific, may suggest particular underlying etiologies. The electrographic pattern of extreme delta brush (EDB) may be seen with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. Alpha-coma is a pattern of continuous unreactive alpha or alpha-theta range activity that may be seen in coma after cardiac arrest or in those with pontine injury. It may resemble normal wakefulness. Spindle-coma and beta-coma are also described. Electrocerebral inactivity (ECI) is the absence of all non-artifactual electrical activity on an EEG, when recording using minimal specified technical standards in patients with cerebral death (brain death).

Plea bargaining does not occur in a vacuum. There are several actors (e.g., prosecutors, defense attorneys, defendants) directly involved with plea negotiations and plea decisions. As approximately 95 percent of state and federal convictions result from guilty pleas, the decision-making process that defendants and other actors undergo during plea negotiations is important to understand. This chapter will address the unique and overlapping theoretical, practical, cognitive, and social influence factors that underlie the plea negotiation process and ultimate plea decision. Specifically, this chapter will focus on negotiations – particularly how attorneys approach negotiation ideologically and practically – and the power dynamics present when two or more actors attempt to influence each other. Furthermore, we will discuss the basic social (e.g., obedience to authority) and cognitive (e.g., heuristics) processes that drive defendant decision-making when interacting with prosecutors and defense attorneys. Finally, policy implications and future directions for research will be discussed throughout the chapter.

This chapter analyses the institutional architecture and political reforms of the Iberian monarchies from the sixteenth century to the end of the eighteenth century, underlining two main ideas. First, the persistence of an institutional model based upon jurisdictional autonomies until the end of the seventeenth century. This political framework was based on cooperation and negotiation allowing the participation of the different institutional and social bodies in the political decision-making process. Iberian monarchs and their ministers were able to establish alliances with local oligarchies, important noble houses, guilds and, of course, the Church. This system was partly disrupted by a movement of political reforms that reinforced State interventionism in the economy during the eighteenth century. Second, the limited economic impact of such reforms prevented an economic growth similar to other Western European territories. They faced resistance of the kingdoms and territories, which aimed to preserve their customs and the resistance of the privileged groups who struggle to maintain their properties and fiscal privileges. Both factors detained the attempts of centralizing reforms and undermined the process of increasing state capacity.

Reclaiming the Public defines and defends the intrinsic value of “the public” that resides in our public institutions and the officials that run them. The book argues that public institutions do not simply act for us but instead speak and act in our name; that is, they represent us. Representation requires that decisions made by public institutions or officials are consistent with the perspectives of citizens. If the decisions satisfy this requirement, these decisions are attributable to citizens, and citizens can be held responsible for them. This theory of political authority accounts for major features of our legal system, such as the noninstrumental grounds for the separation of law-making powers, the noninstrumental value of constitutions, the limits of privatization, the nature and value of public property, and the impermissibility of using artificial intelligence in setting certain policies and making certain decisions.

This overview of Iceland’s medieval history is divided into three phases: firstly, from settlement in the ninth century to 1096−7, which marks the emergence of the Icelandic Church; secondly, from the appearance of Iceland’s earliest written historical sources to the ceding of independence to Norway in 1262/4; and finally, to the end of the fourteenth century. It shows how Iceland’s marginality to the rest of Europe, its lack of a centralized authority and the blurring of historicity and fiction in its most prominent texts have affected understanding of Icelandic history and problematized its historiography. The chapter begins with discussion of the two primary native sources, Ari Þorgilsson’s Islendingabók (The Book of Icelanders) and Landnámabók (The Book of Settlements), their accounts of settlement and conversion, and the value of archaeology as a source. The second phase details the growth of the church and monasteries as places of learning, and how the church’s increasing power led to clashes with the secular elite, resulting in the chaos and violence of the Sturlungaöld. The final phase concerns Iceland’s loss of independence, economic condition and relations with Norway.

This chapter analyses the demographic dynamics in Iberia between 1500 and 1800, in a regional and European perspective, comparing the pattern of population growth, demographic distribution, urbanization and socio-professional composition of the population of the Iberian Peninsula with that of the rest of Europe in the same period. The first section reconstructs the trajectory of the total population for both Iberian countries in order to set the national trends, and to compare these trends of growth with other European countries. It also focus on population distribution across regions and highlight regional differences. Attention is paid to the prevailing “demographic system in both Iberian kingdoms, and to the available data on emigration especially towards the colonial areas. The second section offers an overview of Iberian urbanization between 1500 and 1800. The analysis of the urban dynamic takes into account not only the percentage of the total population living in urban areas (the urbanization rate), but also the morphology of the urban structure. Finally, the third section shows an overall picture of the socio-professional composition of the population in both countries.

Immigrants in the United States without proper documentation face the risk of being subject to deportation (“removal”) proceedings and being detained. Decisions about deportation and immigration detention are made by immigration judges (IJs) in immigration courts (ICs) around the country. Some applications are also decided by the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) and are characterized as “benefits” rather than relief. Psychological evidence is a key component of many forms of removal relief and benefits (e.g., asylum applications, hardship, competency). Decisions made by IJs, immigration attorneys, and mental health professionals in IC can have serious consequences for immigrants, including deportation and detention. This chapter reviews some of the psychological issues involved in immigration law and the legal decision-making involved in removal relief applications. It also outlines the ways in which forensic mental health assessments can aid IJs in their decision-making process and offers recommendations for research and policy in this area.