The aim of a toponymist is to reconstruct and analyse the most original or ancient possible root of a toponym. This requires the linguist to go back to prehistoric times. Yet, at a certain point, scholars will run out of historical sources that can be analysed. They can then postulate the existence of pre-languages that predate proto-languages (since toponymic roots belong to proto-languages). Both types of prehistoric languages are unattested, but a proto-language can be reconstructed by using historical-linguistic methods, while a pre-language cannot. This chapter focusses on the most well-researched language family in the world, Indo-European, and surveys a number of theories on the origins of the speakers of Proto-Indo-European and their relations to Pre-Indo-European civilisations. Toponyms are often ‘linguistic relics’ and, at times, can provide useful insights into pre- and proto-languages spoken in prehistoric times and the dynamics between ancient groups of speakers. This is discussed through the analyses of two case studies, and shows that a root may be reused and refunctionalised in a new proto-language and acquire new meanings and uses.

The chapter explains the basic principles of linguistic change from a sociolinguistic variationist perspective. It begins with an explanation of the inextricable relationship between linguistic variation and change, and proceeds to demonstrate how language change can be observed, investigated, and explained. Sociolinguists can document and analyse language change using either the real-time method or the apparent-time construct; these methods and their advantages and pitfalls are explained and exemplified.