So far, the book has explored different problems in the life cycle of a vaccine. First, it surveyed the pathways to bring new vaccines to market against a backdrop of lacking incentives to R&D, in spite of the recognized public health value of vaccines and the widespread use of intellectual property rights as an incentive to vaccine R&D. Second, it examined the allocative disparities that result from the commodification of vaccines, especially in situations of product scarcity, in which lower-income populations often face considerable hurdles in obtaining access to vaccines. This section examines possible solutions to alleviate these problems. It considers proposals that would take effect at the incentives level, by increasing funding for vaccine-related R&D work; proposals that would operate at transactional level, facilitating the transfer of vaccine technology through the use of patent pools and patent pledges; and proposals to expand and fine-tune the role of vaccine-dedicated public–private partnerships as instruments for the promotion of equitable access to vaccines by populations irrespective of their socioeconomic status.

This chapter considers the research, development, and implementation of solar geoengineering by nonstate actors and their governance by intellectual property policies. Although some observers are concerned that nonstate actors could deploy it, states will probably retain control over operational decision-making regarding large-scale outdoor tests and implementation. At the same time, commercial entities will play roles – most likely as contractors in public procurement – as providers and innovators of goods and services for solar geoengineering activities. A leading means through which states govern nonstate actors in innovative domains is policies for intellectual property, particularly patents. This chapter reviews the current landscape of patents related to solar geoengineering and the social challenges that such intellectual property could pose. It comments on others’ proposals for intellectual property policies specific to solar geoengineering and also recommends one. Importantly, the suggested "research commons," which is centered on a system of patent pledges, does not require state action and could arise bottom-up among researchers and other nonstate actors.