Macroeconomic data is important both for macroeconomic research and for the functioning of the economy itself. In this chapter, we discuss the principles and practices of macroeconomic data construction. Emphasis is on measures of output or income (e.g., GDP), price and inflation (e.g., CPI), employment and labor participation (e.g., unemployment rate), and money supply.

Chapter 2. A “gold standard” means a monetary system in which a defined mass of gold coin or bullion is the unit of account in which prices are posted and accounts kept, and gold coin or bullion is the medium of redemption that ordinary currency and bank accounts promise to pay. Once modern banking developed, the vast majority of money was held and spent in the form of banknotes and deposit transfers, not coins. A monometallic gold standard with bank-issued money avoids problems created by legally imposing bimetallism. A series of supply-and-demand diagrams explains how a gold standard works to determine the quantity and purchasing power of money. The diagrams show how market forces stabilize the purchasing power of gold in response to various shifts in money demand and supply. A major gold discovery can change the purchasing power of gold by altering the supply from mining, but large discoveries were historically rare. The resource costs of a gold standard, the expenditure of labor and capital to extract and coin gold, have been over-estimated by economists who assume away the role of the banking system in economizing on the amount of gold used for transactions.

This chapter presents a new estimate of the value of coinage in circulation in the mid-second century CE Roman empire. More than 25 years ago, Richard Duncan-Jones revolutionized ancient economic history by offering a first projection through numismatic and statistical methods. At more than 20 bn sesterces, his estimate implied an anomalously high monetization ratio given past and current estimates of Roman GDP, an issue that economic historians have had to deal with ever since. In the first half, a review of the numismatic evidence points to a much smaller role for gold than posited by Duncan-Jones. The second half presents a new model of the money supply. It uses Monte Carlo simulation to estimate the value of centrally-minted precious metal coins produced annually under Hadrian, and then the total coinage in circulation ca 160 CE. Allowance for various uncertainties and other, minor components of the coinage suggests a money supply of around 16 bn sesterces, with less gold and more silver than expected. However, this is not quite low enough to explain away the monetization ratio, implying a higher GDP and more trade-oriented economy than currently thought. Two appendices contain lengthy but essential technical discussions of the assumptions in the estimate.

Money is created by the banking system issuing liabilities against itself. Under a fiat money system, nothing of intrinsic value backs the money supply. Viability of the system depends on shared faith. Central banks issue liabilities in the form of currency and deposits held by commercial banks in exchange for acquiring assets in the form of domestic government securities, foreign securities, or loans to commercial banks. These central bank liabilities constitute the monetary base. Commercial banks issue liabilities in the form of demand deposits held by the public in exchange for making loans. Commercial banks are constrained in money creation by the need to hold reserves with the central bank at a required ratio relative to demand deposits. The central bank must manage growth in the monetary base to maintain economic balance: too slow keeps the economy from performing at its potential while too fast causes inflation to rear up. To keep the economy on an even course, the monetarist school, led by Milton Friedman, advocates steady growth in the money supply. A pattern of inflation falling with slowing money growth shows up for Emerging East Asia between the 1990s and the 2000s.

This chapter surveys the major developments in the economic history of the Greek world in the classical period (479–323 BCE). While agricultural practices and productive capacities did not change dramatically, this was a period characterized by a massive increase in the demand for certain commodities, especially timber for the ship-building and monumental-construction efforts of the period and grain to meet the dietary needs of a growing human population. It also considers the major developments in the supply and circulation of coinage in the classical period and the emergence of private banking and the expansion of credit, all of which facilitated both local and long-distance trade. As trade intensified throughout the Aegean and poleis developed more sophisticated institutions for local governance, they developed strategies to derive revenue from trade and imposed regulations on both the production and trade of commodities in which they had a special interest.