This chapter offers an analysis of the shifting fortunes of Latin, English and French between the mid eleventh and early thirteenth centuries, through the lens of linguistic ecology, drawing evidence from metalinguistic commentary in narrative sources, surviving texts, prosopography and onomastics and the findings of the linguistic subdiscipline of language contact. It argues for distinguishing between the period between 1066 and 1140, when the relatively high status English had enjoyed before the Norman Conquest reduced primarily at the hands of Latin, from that between 1050 and 1215, when emergence of French as a literary language, coupled with other late-twelfth-century social changes, more significantly diminished English’s importance as a written language. The chapter closes with some reflections on the factors that condition language choice in multilingual societies, rejecting a simple equation of language and identity.

Societal multilingualism comes about in a number of ways, virtually all of them a result of cross-cultural contact and social necessity. It can have a long-term existence where – for example – political union has brought different language communities under one roof. It can be less permanent in others, as in situations where patterns of migration and assimilation lead, over time, to language erosion. Multilingualism can also reflect the simultaneous existence of varieties of greater and lesser prestige. It can have a simple de facto status, or it may reflect official or legislated policies at state or regional levels. Relatedly, multilingualism may arise “naturally” and without explicit instruction, or it may be a product of more formal educational undertakings. Multilingual capabilities may exist for instrumental communicative reasons, or they may be sustained through powerful symbolic language-and-identity associations, or both. When languages come into contact with one another, it is common to find that some are more dominant than others – in some or perhaps all social spheres – and this situation often leads to efforts towards the maintenance or even rejuvenation of weaker varieties. language and assimilation, language and conflict, language and contact, language and identity, language and instrumentality, language maintenance, language and migration, language and prescriptivism, language and prestige, language revival, language and status, language and symbolism

This provides an overview of trends in heritage language research focusing on Aotearoa New Zealand and Australia. Each country has its own history of colonization, historical and contemporary policies affecting heritage language transmission, and current areas of interest and concern, and these are explored at the beginning of each country’s respective section as necessary contextual background. Then, the past and current research trends for heritage languages in Aotearoa New Zealand and Australia, respectively, are presented. This discussion, situated alongside a broad definition of “heritage languages,” includes both native and immigrant languages in each of the two countries. Aotearoa New Zealand’s more than 160 languages and Australia’s more than 360 languages are acknowledged and broadly discussed. Similarities and differences in research across heritage language groups (e.g., te reo Māori, New Zealand Sign Language, Pasifika languages, Aboriginal languages, Torres Strait Islander languages, and immigrant languages) and across countries are presented, revealing which areas have been focused on as well as areas in need of future research.

This chapter presents a qualitative approach to research on heritage language development – narrative ethnography, which integrates text-based methods of narrative analysis with field-based, interaction-enriched methods of linguistic anthropology. It begins with an overview of its epistemological orientations and an exploration of its usefulness for heritage language research before discussing its methodological orientations. It is argued that such an approach is particularly productive for a context-dependent field such as heritage language development. The chapter concludes with a consideration of the merits and challenges of this approach and its potential to advance knowledge about heritage language development and learning.

In the context of English and Spanish in contact, issues of identity arise at various levels, including: how people’s national and ethnic identities are bound up with their language choices; how the national and ethnic identities were formed historically, and are continually re-formed, in conjunction with languages; how languages themselves are defined – how the English and Spanish (or Castilian) languages came to be recognised as such, and likewise for Scots or Galician or Catalan as languages apart, where many other varieties are regarded as dialects; how contact between English and Spanish, which principally means their knowledge and use by bilinguals, affects these conceptions of languages and national and ethnic identities. This chapter examines these issues in terms not just of Spanish and English, but of Spanishes and Englishes in their global diversity, together with the other languages with which they share multilingual spaces. A wide range of recent studies on bilingual identities are taken into consideration, as is current work on the effects of globalisation, superdiversity and translanguaging.

This chapter provides an overview of the key theoretical concepts that inform the analysis and argument of the book. The main focus is on the practices of royal power in the sixteenth century, particularly in the variable experiences subjects would have had of their monarch (i.e . social rank, literacy), and on the sociolinguistic concepts that underpin the notion of 'royal voices'. The latter includes a summary of enregisterment, register, entextualisation and other theoretical concepts that inform the interpretation of the linguistic and visual evidence. The chapter concludes with a summary of the material collected for analysis in chapters 1-8.

Chapter 1 provides a general introduction to the book, outlining the need for police investigators to engage in online identity assumption and justifying a linguistic contribution that can be made in terms of the variety of ways in which linguists and forensic linguists have approached questions of language and identity. We set out the context of online sexual abuse, in particular the abuse of children.

Finally, Chapter 7 discusses the implications of our work for the operational task of identity assumption, and for the more theoretical concerns around the linguistic individual and language and identity more generally. We conclude the chapter with our thoughts for the directions similar research might take in the future.

The theoretical underpinning to the concept of identity is the central topic of Chapter 5, where we examine particular facets of identity such as the performance of age, relationships and communities of practice. Keeping in mind our view of identity as being continuously negotiated through discursive practices, we focus here particularly on how age is treated as a relevant identity category by participants, and how relationships between adult offenders and child victims are performed. We probe the question of how these performances are situated in the wider social context, and in relation to other, more recognisable types of relationship that might be relied upon as resources.

An important goal of this edited volume is to address the following challenge: What can scholars of language politics and policy contribute to our understanding of things as they are (the "Why?" Question) while also providing concrete suggestions and describing actual policies that have enhanced democratic participation and inclusion (the "What" Answer)? The contributors fully embrace the fundamental reality that virtually all contemporary nation-states have multiple language groups among their citizens, and that acceptance and legitimation of linguistic and cultural diversity is beneficial for societal well-being, and not just beneficial for minority/minoritized language communities. In exploring and explaining language politics and policies in diverse contexts in Canada and the United States, using a variety of data sources and disciplinary perspectives, the authors describe the challenges and set-backs, along with the many positive steps taken in recent years to advance the interests and aspirations of speakers of marginalized/minoritized languages. The authors remain hopeful that positive change is possible while acknowledging that ideologies about language and the role of language in national development and identity remain potent forces that are often difficult to challenge, let alone dislodge, when they become embedded in the daily lives and common sense views of citizens.

This chapter is an introduction to language and linguistic concepts from the viewpoints of North America. It sets the historical stage for the development of Canadian English from about 1900 to the present. Couched in the ascension of English as the predominant world language, the chapter sketches the influences on Canadian English via immigration and language and dialect contact throughout history. It introduces the six protagonists of the book, the "Big Six", who, shortly after World War II, embarked on a campaign to define, codify, and create the notion of Canadian English as a variety on a par with American and British English. Special emphasis is given to changing linguistic attitudes towards the English used in Canada, from the 1850s to the present. Basic concepts from the fields of dialectology, sociolinguistics, historical linguistics, and World Englishes are explained and illustrated for the non-specialist reader.

The final chapter goes beyond the set time frame of 1940-98 and into the present. Analyzing news coverage since the postwar period, in this chapter we identify a recurring Canadian news coverage on Canadian English, presenting the concept of "Canadian English" as either new or weird. In the light of the evidence presented throughout the book, the readers are in the position to decide for themselves whether there is a Canadian English. Canadian intellectuals are shownas often taking a rather negative stance, treating expressions of national identity as more or less akin to national jingoism, which is surprising given their generally international orientation. Attitude data are used to show that a "Canadian way of speaking" is firmly entrenched in the minds of today's Canadian residents, with 80 per cent of Canadians across all age groups positively confirming the concept. This is a radical change from only a generation or two ago, when especially younger Canadians were often sceptical. News coverage has since also seen a shift, being today exclusively positive. Such data should encourage educators to teach about Canadian English expressly, starting in elementary school. Using examples from www.dchp.ca/dchp2, it is shown that much remains to be explored about Canadian English.