Two highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) outbreaks have affected commercial egg production flocks in the American continent in recent years; a H7N3 outbreak in Mexico in 2012 that caused 70% to 85% mortality and a H5N2 outbreak in the United States in 2015 with over 99% mortality. Blood samples were obtained from survivors of each outbreak and from age and genetics matched non-affected controls. A total of 485 individuals (survivors and controls) were genotyped with a 600 k single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array to detect genomic regions that influenced the outcome of highly pathogenic influenza infection in the two outbreaks. A total of 420458 high quality, segregating SNPs were identified across all samples. Genetic differences between survivors and controls were analyzed using a logistic model, mixed models and a Bayesian variable selection approach. Several genomic regions potentially associated with resistance to HPAI were identified, after performing multidimensional scaling and adjustment for multiple testing. Analysis conducted within each outbreak identified different genomic regions for resistance to the two virus strains. The strongest signals for the Iowa H5N2 survivor samples were detected on chromosomes 1, 7, 9 and 15. Positional candidate genes were mainly coding for plasma membrane proteins with receptor activity and were also involved in immune response. Three regions with the strongest signal for the Mexico H7N3 samples were located on chromosomes 1 and 5. Neuronal cell surface, signal transduction and immune response proteins coding genes were located in the close proximity of these regions.

This research is focused on the epidemiological analysis of the transmission of the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus outbreak in Nigeria. The data included 145 outbreaks together with the locations of the infected farms and the date of confirmation of infection. In order to investigate the environmental conditions that favoured the transmission and spread of the virus, weather stations were realigned with the locations of the infected farms. The spatial Kolmogorov–Smirnov test for complete spatial randomness rejects the null hypothesis of constant intensity (P < 0·0001). Preliminary exploratory analysis showed an increase in the incidence of H5N1 virus at farms located at high altitude. Results from the Poisson log-linear conditional intensity function identified temperature (−0·9601) and wind speed (0·6239) as the ecological factors that influence the intensity of transmission of the H5N1 virus. The model also includes distance from the first outbreak (−0·9175) with an Akaike's Information Criterion of −103·87. Our analysis using a point process model showed that geographical heterogeneity, seasonal effects, temperature, wind as well as proximity to the first outbreak are very important components of spread and transmission of HPAI H5N1.

Emergence of the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus in Egypt in mid-February 2006 caused significant losses for the poultry industry and constituted a potential threat to public health. Since late 2007, there has been increasing evidence that stable lineages of H5N1 viruses are being established in chickens and humans in Egypt. The virus has been detected in wild, feral and zoo birds and recently was found in donkeys and pigs. Most of the outbreaks in poultry and humans occurred in the highly populated Nile delta. The temporal pattern of the virus has changed since 2009 with outbreaks now occurring in the warmer months of the year. Challenges to control of endemic disease in Egypt are discussed. For the foreseeable future, unless a global collaboration exists, HPAI H5N1 virus in Egypt will continue to compromise the poultry industry, endanger public health and pose a serious pandemic threat.

Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) Type A subtype H5N1 is a viral zoonotic disease that has infected and killed birds and humans since late 2003. Cambodia's experience with HPAI since the disease was discovered on a farm outside Phnom Penh in January 2004 reveals important aspects of how a developing country, with limited resources and capabilities, has responded to a crisis that has global public health implications and, vice-versa, how this global response in turn affected Cambodia. Qualitative research methodologies consisting of mostly one-on-one semi-structured interviews by Sophal Ear across various government offices, the private sector and the non-governmental sectors, and online surveys sent to individuals deeply involved in HPAI work in Cambodia can render interesting insights related to livelihood issues. Results from these methodologies suggest there is a non-alignment of interests among the government, donors, implementing agencies and rural smallholder farmers that have important implications for effectiveness of disease mitigation measures and livelihood impacts.

The current Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) crisis, involving the H5N1 subtype, has developed quickly and has overwhelmed the human resource capacity of both international agencies and national governments in many affected countries. It has been recognized that the best way of preventing the emergence of a pandemic influenza virus of avian origin is to control the virus at source. The H5N1 subtype is now endemic in a number of countries and it has become clear that its control and eventual eradication will require a medium to long-term strategy involving multiple stakeholders. A common understanding of the problem and effective education and communication components are important elements of the control strategy. This paper reviews the challenges involved with the development of effective communication materials and methodologies for the wide range of partners involved in the prevention and control of HPAI, the communication lessons learnt to date and makes recommendations for improving the effectiveness and efficiency of communication activities in the future.