An anti-inflammatory diet is characterised by incorporating foods with potential anti-inflammatory properties, including fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, legumes, spices, herbs and plant-based protein. Concurrently, pro-inflammatory red and processed meat, refined carbohydrates and saturated fats are limited. This article explores the effects of an anti-inflammatory diet on non-communicable diseases (NCD), concentrating on the underlying mechanisms that connect systemic chronic inflammation, dietary choices and disease outcomes. Chronic inflammation is a pivotal contributor to the initiation and progression of NCD. This review provides an overview of the intricate pathways through which chronic inflammation influences the pathogenesis of conditions including obesity, type II diabetes mellitus, CVD, autoinflammatory diseases, cancer and cognitive disorders. Through a comprehensive synthesis of existing research, we aim to identify some bioactive compounds present in foods deemed anti-inflammatory, explore their capacity to modulate inflammatory pathways and, consequently, to prevent or manage NCD. The findings demonstrated herein contribute to an understanding of the interplay between nutrition, inflammation and chronic diseases, paving a way for future dietary recommendations and research regarding preventive or therapeutic strategies.

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is an efficient method to improve vascular function, maximal oxygen consumption, and muscle mitochondrial capacity. However, acute HIIT overstresses the oxidative system and causes muscle soreness and damage. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of date seeds on exercise-induced oxidative stress and aerobic and anaerobic performance following HIIT sessions. Thirty-six physically active men and women aged 18–35 years were assigned to take 26 g/d of date seed powder (DSP, n 18) or wheat bran powder (placebo, n 18) before and after HIIT workouts for 14 d. Total antioxidant capacity (TAC), oxidative stress index (OSI), total oxidant status (TOS), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), uric acid, malondialdehyde (MDA), and 8-iso-PGF2α were determined at baseline, at the end of the intervention, and 24-h post-intervention. We used the Cooper and running-based anaerobic sprint test to assess aerobic and anaerobic performance at the study’s beginning and end. Independent-samples Student’s t tests, ANCOVA and repeated-measures ANOVA were used to compare the quantitative variables. Positive changes were observed in TAC, TOS, OSI, GPx, MDA and visual analogue scale after intervention and at 24-h post-exercise (P < 0·05). Likewise, peak power and fatigue index were significantly improved in DSP in comparison with the placebo group. Levels of SOD, uric acid, 8-iso-PGF2α, VO2 max and average power were not changed after training. Our results showed that date seed supplementation in active participants performing HIIT bouts ameliorated oxidative stress and improved performance parameters.

Beetroot juice (BJ) consumption has been associated with improved cardiovascular health owing to an increase in NO bioconversion. This study evaluates the effect of BJ consumption on macrovascular endothelial function (flow-mediated dilation (FMD)) and muscle oxygen saturation (StO2) parameters in pregnant women within a randomised, crossover, double-blind design in which twelve pregnant women consumed a single dose (140 ml) of BJ or placebo (PLA). Urinary nitrate was assessed before (T0) and 150 min after BJ/PLA consumption. FMD was used to evaluate macrovascular endothelial function, and near-IR spectroscopy was used to evaluate muscle StO2 parameters during the occlusion and reperfusion phases, which were taken at baseline (PRE) and 120 and 140 min after BJ/PLA consumption, respectively. A significant increase in urinary nitrate was observed at 150 min after BJ consumption when compared with T0 (BJ: 0·20 (sd 0·13) v. T0: 0·02 (sd 0·00), P=0·000) and PLA intervention (PLA: 0·02 (sd 0·00), P=0·001). FMD improved after BJ consumption when compared with PRE (BJ: 11·00 (sd 1·67) v. PRE: 5·53 (sd 1·17), P=0·000) and PLA (5·34 (sd 1·31), P=0·000). No significant difference between PLA and PRE in FMD (P=1·000) was observed. In StO2 parameters, a difference was not observed after BJ consumption compared with PRE and PLA intervention. The data demonstrate that a single dose of 140 ml of BJ consumption improves macrovascular endothelial function, but not StO2 parameters.

The prevalence of type 2 diabetes (T2D) is predicted to reach unprecedented levels in the next few decades. In addition to excess body weight, there may be other overlapping dietary drivers of impaired glucose homeostasis that are associated with an obesogenic diet, such as regular exposure to postprandial spikes in blood glucose arising from diets dominated by highly refined starches and added sugars. Strategies to reduce postprandial hyperglycaemia by optimising the functionality of foods would strengthen efforts to reduce the risk of T2D. Berry bioactives, including anthocyanins, are recognised for their inhibitory effects on carbohydrate digestion and glucose absorption. Regular consumption of berries has been associated with a reduction in the risk of T2D. This review aims to examine the evidence from in vitro, animal and human studies, showing that berries and berry anthocyanins may act in the gut to modulate postprandial glycaemia. Specifically, berry extracts and anthocyanins inhibit the activities of pancreatic α-amylase and α-glucosidase in the gut lumen, and interact with intestinal sugar transporters, sodium-dependent glucose transporter 1 and GLUT2, to reduce the rate of glucose uptake into the circulation. Growing evidence from randomised controlled trials suggests that berry extracts, purées and nectars acutely inhibit postprandial glycaemia and insulinaemia following oral carbohydrate loads. Evidence to date presents a sound basis for exploring the potential for using berries/berry extracts as an additional stratagem to weight loss, adherence to dietary guidelines and increasing physical exercise, for the prevention of T2D.

In view of the increasing public awareness of the relationship between healthy diet and prevention of many diseases, particularly civilisation-related diseases, producers are trying to focus consumers’ attention on the health-promoting components found in poultry meat or introduced to final products. The health-promoting quality of poultry meat may be improved by undertaking certain animal management measures (genetic and nutritional factors), reducing undesirable components, adding individual biocomponents and applying appropriate technological measures. These include changing fatty acid profiles, increased content of bioactive protein and reduced content of sodium chloride, nitrates and nitrites. At present research is being conducted on methods to enrich the composition of meat and its processed products with bioactive substances such as vitamins, polyunsaturated fatty acids and other beneficial components, e.g. fibre.

Similar to omega-3 eggs, chicken meat has great potential to become a functional food for humans. In India, chicken meat is preferred due to its perceived health benefits and affordability. The balance between omega 3 and 6 fatty acids is crucial for its usefulness in animals. At present commercial chicken meat has low omega-3 fatty acid content and higher omega-6 fatty acid content. Published research shows that it is possible to modify the lipid profile of commercial chickens by manipulating the broiler diet. The modern human diet is deficient in n-3 FAs, which has been linked to the increase in several degenerative diseases such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, arthritis, cancer and mental illness. Therefore omega-3 chicken meat may be an effective means of increasing n-3 FA in the human diet. There are several problems associated with the commercial production of omega-3 chicken meat related to the choice of source of fatty acids in the feed, cost of production, consumer acceptability and stability of the chicken meat that need to be tackled. The present article briefly reviews the studies carried out in this respect, the possible impact of omega-3 chicken meat production on the poultry industry, and on human health.

Human bioavailability of cocoa flavanols and phenolic acids from a cocoa-nut cream (CC) and from CC enriched with a 1·5 % (w/w) cocoa polyphenol extract in free form (FPC) or encapsulated with a gastric-resistant high-amylose maize starch (EPC), was studied. In a randomised cross-over protocol, with 1-week wash-out in between, twelve healthy volunteers had three portions/d of each cream, providing approximately 190 μmol/d of total flavanols and 12 μmol/d of total phenolic acids with CC and 385 and 28 μmol/d with both FPC and EPC, respectively. Blood, urine and faecal samples were analysed by HPLC/MS/MS. Serum (epi)catechin was absent at baseline and after CC consumption, while 22·1 (sem 2·62) and 1·59 (sem 0·22) nmol (P <0·05) were found after FPC and EPC, respectively. The EPC increased faecal excretion of total flavanols compared to FPC (151·0 (sem 54·6) v. 28·0 (sem 14·0) nmol; P <0·05). Within 6 h after consumption, serum phenolic acid content was 50-fold higher than (epi)catechin; no difference between CC and FPC was observed, but a significant reduction after EPC (1954 (sem 236·3) and 1459 (sem 137·6) v. 726·8 (sem 73·4) nmol, P <0·05) was recorded. Short-term phenolic acid urinary excretions were significantly higher after FPC than CC and EPC, the values being 11·4 (sem 5·1) v. 3·1 (sem 1·7) and 0·9 (sem 0·5) μmol, respectively. Faecal phenolic acids were approximately 60-fold reduced after FPC (8·1 (sem 0·13) nmol) and EPC (14·7 (sem 2·7) nmol) consumption compared to CC (641·4 (sem 99·1) nmol) consumption. The data demonstrated that: (i) (epi)catechin was absorbed from CC; (ii) cocoa polyphenols' consumption increased circulating phenolic acids; and (iii) encapsulated ingredient increased flavanol delivering into the gut. Further studies should evaluate whether encapsulated cocoa polyphenols may be a functional prebiotic ingredient.

Previous studies have demonstrated that milk fermented by specific Lactococcus lactis strains significantly inhibits the activity of angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE). However, the relationship between the ACE inhibitor and its in vivo action has revealed discrepancies. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate the antihypertensive and heart rate (HR)-lowering effect of milk fermented by specific L. lactis in a murine model. Spontaneously hypertensive male rats (271 (SD14) g) were randomised into four treatment groups that were orally administered with milk fermented by L. lactis NRRL B-50 571 or L. lactis NRRL B-50 572 at 35 or 50 mg protein/kg body weight (BW), respectively. Further, two more groups were fed with different solutions as controls: a saline solution as the negative control and Captopril™ (40 mg/kg BW), a proven ACE inhibitor, as the positive control. Blood pressure and HR were monitored by the tail-cuff method before the treatments and at 2, 4, 6 and 24 h post-oral administration. The results demonstrated that milk fermented by L. lactis NRRL B-50 571 as well as by L. lactis NRRL B-50 572 presented an important systolic and diastolic blood pressure- and HR-lowering effect. Thus, milk fermented by specific L. lactis strains may present potential benefits in the prevention and treatment of CVD associated with hypertension in humans.

The traditional utilization of donkeys (Equus asinus) as dairy animals has recently attracted substantial scientific interest with regard to human nutrition. Donkey milk is well tolerated by infants with cows’ milk allergy, useful in the treatment of human immune-related diseases, in the prevention of atherosclerosis, and in-vitro studies showed an anti-proliferative effect. Active 3-3′-5-triiodothyronine (T3) in colostrum and milk could play different physiological roles, systemic and paracrine, for both the mother and the suckling offspring. The aim was to evaluate whether thyroid hormones (TH) concentrations in milk and blood of lactating donkeys change with the advancing lactation and whether they can be affected by dietary supplementation with several trace elements, some of them directly involved with TH synthesis (I), metabolism (Se) and action (Zn). Sixteen lactating jennies were divided into two groups (CTL and TE). Mixed feed for TE was added with Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn, I, Se and Co. Every 2 weeks milk and blood samples were collected at 11·00. Total concentrations of T3 in milk (T3M) and T3 and T4 in plasma (T3P and T4P) were assayed using ELISA kits, validated for the donkey species. T3M was not correlated with TH concentrations in blood, did not change with the stage of lactation, and was significantly higher in TE (4·09±0·07 ng/ml, mean±se) than in CTL group (3·89±0·08 ng/ml). T4P (81·8±5·2 ng/ml) and T3P (15·2±1 ng/ml) significantly changed with time, but were not significantly affected by dietary treatment. T3P/T4P ratio was significantly lower in TE group. This study indicates that in donkey milk the concentration of T3, a human-like bioactive compound, can be affected by trace elements intake.

We investigated the effects of prolonged treatment of diabetic rats with curcumin-supplemented yoghurt on the physiological and biochemical changes associated with diabetes mellitus. An established metabolic cage model was used to assess these changes in three groups of streptozotocin-diabetic rats which had been administered, by gavage, curcumin blended into yoghurt in the doses of 30, 60 and 90 mg/kg body weight (BW) per d (groups DC30, DC60, DC90) for 31 d. One group of non-diabetic rats was also treated with 90 mg/kg BW per d curcumin (NDC90). Three control groups of diabetic animals received water (DW), yoghurt (DY) and insulin at 27·78 μmol/d by subcutaneous injection (DI). Also, two groups of non-diabetic animals received water (NDW) and yoghurt (NDY). Groups DI and DC90 exhibited significant falls, relative to DW and DY, in food and water intake, urine volume, glycaemia, urinary urea and glucose, proteinuria, serum TAG and activities of aspartate and alanine aminotransferases, and higher hepatic glycogen and BW. These improvements were greater in DI than in DC90. No difference was observed in the serum levels of total cholesterol or HDL-cholesterol, or in the masses of adipose and muscular tissues, between DC90 and DW or DY. Moreover, the improvements in curcumin-treated rats, relative to DW and DY, were significant and dose-dependent. The NDC90 group also showed no difference from the NDW or NDY groups, in any of the markers for diabetes. In conclusion, curcumin mixed into yoghurt at the highest dose tested exhibited anti-diabetic activity, improving significantly most of the markers assessed in this study.

Foods that have a low glycaemic index or foods that contain slowly digestible starch are beneficial in controlling fluctuations in blood glucose and insulin levels. The study hypothesis is that gelatinisation of starch in structured casein networks provides a method for decreasing the digestion rate of the starch and, hence, minimising postprandial glucose fluctuations. This study examined the effect of starch gelatinisation with or without casein on (1) gene expression and peptide secretion levels of the incretin hormones glucagon-like peptide 1 and glucose-independent insulinotropic polypeptide and (2) gene expression of the sodium–glucose cotransporter and GLUT-2 in intestinal cell culture systems. The intestinal epithelial cell line, STC-1, and the enteroendocrine colonic cell line, Caco-2, were exposed to in vitro digested foods (starch gelatinised with α-casein, starch gelatinised with β-casein and gelatinised starch alone). The encapsulation of starch with casein before in vitro digestion lowers levels of incretin hormone secretion. Digestion of starch gelatinised with casein also releases less glucose than starch alone as indicated by significantly (P < 0·05) lower levels of glucose transporter mRNA transcripts. Some subtle cellular response differences were observed following exposure to starch gelatinised with α- compared to β-casein. Fractionation of α-casein and β-casein by reverse-phase HPLC identified that fractions that differed in hydrophobicity differed significantly (P < 0·05) in their ability to promote secretion of the incretin hormones. Evidence suggests that gelatinisation of starch with casein may be a functional food ingredient that minimises blood glucose fluctuations.

Donkey's milk is well tolerated by human infants with cow's milk allergy and is useful in the treatment of human immune-related diseases and in the prevention of atherosclerosis. Thyroid hormones (TH) stimulate lactation and active triiodothyronine (T3) in colostrum and milk could take paracrine action supporting lactogenesis in the mother, and play physiological roles for the suckling offspring (systemic or within the gastrointestinal tract). The aims were to measure TH concentrations in donkey blood and milk, validate ELISA methods, evaluate the effects of sample collection and post-collection handling and the stability of TH in milk and blood serum and plasma samples. In milk and blood samples obtained from lactating jennies total concentrations of TH were assayed using competitive-type ELISA kits. Good validation results were obtained for both TH concentrations in blood serum and plasma and T3 in milk samples extracted with cold (−20°C) ethanol alkalinized (pH 9·0) with NH4OH. In most of the milk extract samples, thyroxine (T4) concentrations resulted below the sensitivity threshold. Intra- and inter-assay coefficients of variations of TH concentrations in different blood and milk samples were below 10%. Parallelism tests gave displacement lines parallel to those of the calibrators for both TH in blood serum and plasma and for T3 in milk extracts. Mean recovery rates were between 95% and 123%, but the concentration values approaching the highest calibrators were overestimated. Therefore, serum and plasma samples for T3 assay must be previously diluted with buffer. Both TH concentrations in blood serum and plasma and T3 in milk did not change during storage for up to 6 months at −20°C. In conclusion, the ELISA methods tested in the present study are suitable for determination of both TH concentrations in donkey blood samples, and for T3 measurement in milk, after extraction with cold alkaline ethanol.

Green tea is rich in polyphenolic antioxidants and has widely reported but largely unsubstantiated health benefits. In the present study, genoprotective effects of two types of green tea were studied both in an in vitro and in a human supplementation trial. For the in vitro study, human lymphocytes were pre-incubated in tea (0·005–0·1 %, w/v), washed and subjected to oxidant challenge induced by H2O2. In a placebo-controlled, cross-over supplementation study, eighteen healthy volunteers took 2 × 150 ml/d of 1 % (w/v) green tea (‘Longjing’ green tea or ‘screw-shaped’ green tea) or water (control) for 4 weeks (n 6). Subjects took all the three treatments in a random order, with 6 weeks' washout between each treatment. Fasting blood and urine were collected before and after each treatment. The comet assay was used to measure the resistance of lymphocytic DNA to H2O2-induced challenge. Basal oxidation-induced DNA damage was measured using the formamidopyrimidine glycosylase (Fpg) enzyme-assisted comet assay. Urine 7,8-dihydro-2-deoxyguanosine (8-oxodG, mol/mmol creatinine), a biomarker of whole-body oxidative stress, was measured by liquid chromatography with tandem MS. In vitro testing results of tea-treated cells showed increased (P < 0·05) resistance of DNA to the challenge. In the supplementation trial, a significant (P < 0·05) increase in resistance was also observed. Furthermore, the FPg comet data showed >20 % decrease in DNA damage with tea supplementation: mean and standard deviation changes in %DNA in comet tail in the Fpg-assisted comet assay were: − 5·96 (sd 3·83) % after Longjing tea; − 6·22 (sd 3·34) % after screw-shaped tea; +0·91 (sd 5·79) % after water (P < 0·05). No significant changes in urine 8-oxodG were seen. The results indicate that green tea has significant genoprotective effects and provide evidence for green tea as a ‘functional food’.

There is an urgent need to develop and validate a series of biomarkers, which accurately measure and inform on how the human gut microbiota can affect human health. The human gut hosts a complex community of micro-organisms, with unique features in each individual. The functional role of this gut microbiota in health and disease is increasingly evident, but poorly understood. Comprehension of this ecosystem implies a significant challenge in the elucidation of interactions between all of its components, but promises a paradigm shift in preventive nutrition and medicine. ‘Omics’ technologies for the first time offer tools of sufficient subtlety to tackle this challenge. However, these techniques must be allied with traditional skills of the microbial physiologist, which are in danger of being lost. Targeting these efforts at the identification of biomarkers associated with gut health will require access to a ‘biobank’ from a pan-European or worldwide observation study, which would include samples taken with appropriate frequency from healthy individuals of different ages. This offers a pragmatic opportunity for a unique food and pharmaceutical industry collaboration.

Walnut consumption produces beneficial cardiovascular effects. The aim of the present study is to compare the effects of meat enriched in walnut paste (WM) and low-fat meat (LM) consumptions on platelet aggregation, plasma thromboxane A2 (TXA2, measured as TXB2), prostacyclin I2 (PGI2, as 6-keto-PGF1α) and the thrombogenic ratio (TXB2/6-keto-PGF1α) in volunteers at high CVD risk. Twenty-two adults were placed on a random, non-blinded crossover study involving two test periods (five portions WM/week for 5 week; five portions LM/week for 5 week) separated by a 4- to 6-week washout period. The participants were asked to complete a diet record throughout the study. Platelet aggregation, plasma TXB2, 6-keto-PGF1α production and the TXB2/6-keto-PGF1α ratio were determined at baseline and at weeks 3 and 5 for the two dietary periods. The WM diet contains a lower SFA content, a higher concentration of PUFA and a more favourable n-6/n-3 ratio than the LM diet. Significant time × treatment interactions were observed for TXB2 (P = 0·048) and the TXB2/6-keto-PGF1α ratio (P = 0·028). The WM diet significantly increased the level of 6-keto-PGF1α (P = 0·037) and decreased the TXB2/6-keto-PGF1α ratio (P = 0·048). At week 5, significant differences (P < 0·05) between treatments were found for maximum aggregation rate, TXB2 values and the TXB2/6-keto-PGF1α ratio. The effects on TXB2 and the TXB2/6-keto-PGF1α ratio were time-course dependent (P = 0·019 and 0·011, respectively). The WM and LM diets reduced TXB2 levels most (P = 0·050) in obese individuals, while the TXB2/6-keto-PGF1α ratio decreased most (P = 0·066) in volunteers whose serum cholesterol levels were ≥ 2200 mg/l. The WM diet should be considered a functional meat because it improves the thrombogenic status mainly in individuals with high-cholesterol levels or high BMI.

The Japanese scientific academic community defined ‘functional food’ early in the 1980s. That is, functional foods are those that have three functions. The primary function is nutrition. The secondary function is a sensory function or sensory satisfaction. The third is the tertiary function, which is physiological. The Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare (MHLW) set up ‘Foods for Specified Health Use’ (FOSHU) in 1991 as a regulatory system to approve the statements made on food labels concerning the effect of the food on the human body. Food products applying for approval by FOSHU are scientifically evaluated in terms of their effectiveness and safety by the Council of Pharmaceutical Affairs and Food Hygiene under the MHLW. The regulatory range of FOSHU was broadened in 2001 to accept the forms of capsules and tablets in addition to those of conventional foods. FOSHU increased the total to about 330 items in January 2003. The MHLW enacted a new regulatory system, ‘Foods with Health Claims’, in April 2001, which consists of the existing FOSHU system and the newly established ‘Foods with Nutrient Function Claims’ (FNFC). Under the FNFC, twelve vitamins (vitamins A, B1, B2, B6, B12, C, E, D, biotin, pantothenic acid, folic acid, and niacin) and two minerals (Ca and Fe) are standardized. Examples of claims regarding these substances are as follows: ‘Calcium is a nutrient which is necessary to form bones and teeth’; ‘Vitamin D is a nutrient which promotes calcium absorption in the gut intestine and aids in the formation of bones.’ The upper and lower levels of the daily consumption of these nutrients are also determined. The labelling of functional foods should always be based on scientific evidence and be in harmony with international standards. The nutrient–function claim was adopted in the guidelines for nutrition claims by the Codex Alimentarius in 1997. The claims of the Japanese FNFC are equivalent to the nutrient function claims standardized by the Codex Alimentarius. The enhanced function claim and the disease risk-reduction claims were proposed by both the Codex Alimentarius and an Economic Union project in 1999. The structure function claim, which is similar to the enhanced function claim, was enacted by the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act in the USA in 1994. Most of the statements of the Japanese FOSHU system are close to the category of structure/function claims in the USA or the enhanced function claims of the Codex Alimentarius.

Nutritional genomics is a new and promising science area which can broadly be defined as the application of high throughput genomics (transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics/metabonomics) and functional genomic technologies to the study of nutritional sciences and food technology. First utilised in the food industry by plant biotechnologists to manipulate plant biosynthetic pathways, the use of genomic technologies has now spread within the agriculture sector, unleashing a host of new applications (e.g. approaches for producing novel, non-transgenic plant varietals; identification of genetic markers to guide plant and animal breeding programmes; exploration of diet–gene interactions for enhancing product quality and plant/animal health). Beyond agriculture, genomic technologies are also contributing to the improvement of food processing, food safety and quality assurance as well as the development of functional food products and the evolution of new health management concepts such as ‘personalised nutrition’, an emerging paradigm in which the diet of an individual is customised, based on their own genomic information, to optimise health and prevent disease. In this review the relevance of nutritional genomics to the food industry will be considered and examples given on how this science area is starting to be leveraged for economic benefits and to improve human nutrition and health.

Many food components can influence satiety or energy intake. Combined together, these food components could represent an interesting dietary strategy in the prevention and treatment of obesity. The aims of this study were: 1) to determine the effect of a functional food in the form of a healthy meal course on subsequent energy intake and satiety; 2) to verify if it is possible to maintain palatability while preserving the satiating effects of the test meal. Thirteen subjects were invited to eat two lunch sessions: healthy and control meal courses (2090 kJ/meal). Anthropometric and ad libitum food intake measurements, and visual analogue scales (VAS) were performed during the two lunch sessions. The healthy main course acutely decreased energy intake during the rest of the meal ( − 744 kJ, P ≤ 0·0001) and lipid ( − 6 %, P ≤ 0·0001) compared with the control meal. VAS ratings during the course of the testing showed a meal effect for hunger, desire to eat and prospective food consumption (P ≤ 0·05) and a time effect for all appetite sensations (P ≤ 0·0001). VAS scores on hunger ratings were lower for the healthy meal (P ≤ 0·05), whereas fullness ratings were higher shortly after the healthy main course (P ≤ 0·05). The healthy meal produced a slightly higher palatability rating but this effect was not statistically significant. These results suggest that it is possible to design a healthy meal that decreases spontaneous energy intake and hunger without compromising palatability.