This chapter describes the processes by which the foundations were laid for Canada to become one of the world’s great industrial nations. In this period, Canadians build more railways, encouraged massive immigration, and experienced growing class, ethnic, gender, religious, and regional tensions. Immigrants flocked to jobs in urban centres, developed Canada’s resource frontiers, and swamped the Indigenous populations of British Columbia, the Prairies (from which the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and an enlarged Manitoba were carved), and Yukon Territory (where gold was discovered in 1896). Meanwhile, Montreal and Toronto emerged as nation-dominating metropolises, and progressive civil society organizations agitated for social reforms that would smooth the rough edges of industrial capitalism. Although national unity was a fragile flower and the national policy based on immigration, railroad building, and industrial development was called into question from a variety of critics, both the nation and the national policy survived all challenges, including demands for annexation to the United States and Imperial Federation.

On-farm conservation involves the maintenance of traditional varieties by farmers in agroecosystems. The important role of small farmers living and cultivating in complex, diverse and risk-prone marginal and heterogeneous environments in maintaining crop diversity on-farm is described. The on-farm conservation of plant genetic resources is complex because there are many factors that will influence a farmer’s decision on the management of their crops and fields, which in turn affect the quantity and quality of the inherent genetic diversity. The multiple private and public values and benefits of on-farm conservation are highlighted, as well as the options and interventions that can help strengthen the role of small farmers and farming communities in on-farm conservation. A major focus for the conservationist or development practitioner will be to encourage the farmer to continue cultivation of traditional varieties and this may be achieved by niche marketing, seed shows, participatory traditional variety improvement or even financial incentives. Key steps that need to be considered when implementing an on-farm conservation project are outlined and a brief review of the impact of on-farm conservation projects and the implications for scaling up actions is provided.