A history and periodization of American antisemitism that asks (1) whether to understand the phenomenon as grimly eternal, dependably cyclical, or just as an occasional and episodic factor in American history; (2) whether to interpret antisemitism as a “cultural code,” revealing less about Jews than about the culture that stigmatizes them; and (3) whether antisemitism is different in the United States than in other diaspora lands where Jews have lived.

A disease-based explanation of substance use disorders is dominant in many Western countries, especially in treatment settings. Acceptance of the disease concept of SUD reduces the shame and guilt of suffering individuals, a definite benefit for treatment of the disorder. Genetic and neurological factors are basic to the disease concept of SUD. However, less severe SUD can result from factors other than a disease process, and is better explained as a behavioral disorder. Even addiction – the most extremely disordered use of drugs – is influenced by developmental, experiential, and societal factors. Basic tenets of disease theory are of limited validity, including that SUD is always a primary disorder (not caused by a psychological disorder), that progression of the disorder is inevitable, and that addictive drug use is uncontrollable. Compulsive behavior and poor impulse control are common in SUD. However, many instances of drug use by addicted individuals require deliberation and apparent full control, especially when the behavior occurs in a non-drugged state. Judgment is often impaired by addiction, but behavior is rarely actually uncontrolled.