This chapter explores favela upgrading in the communities of Pavão-Pavãozinho and Cantagalo in the wake of a terrible mudslide in 1983, under the administration of socialist governor Leonel Brizola. The chapter explores the huge ambitions of Brizola’s administration and the linked upgrading projects in Pavão-Pavãozinho in particular, analyzes the strengths and weaknesses of those projects, and places this in the context of larger economic, political and demographic transitions in the city.

Following democracy’s global advance in the late twentieth century, recent patterns of democratic “backsliding” have generated extensive scholarly debate. Since backsliding towards autocracy is often the work of elected leaders operating within democratic institutions, it challenges conventional thinking about democratic consolidation, the enforcement of institutional checks and balances, and the reproduction of democratic norms. Drawing insights from classic literature on democratic transitions and consolidation, this volume examines the nature of contemporary threats to democracy, recognizing that the central challenge is not always to induce the compliance of those who lose elections, but rather those who emerge victorious and turn the institutional leverage of incumbency into a source of ongoing competitive advantage. There is, then, both a “loser’s dilemma” and a “winner’s dilemma” embedded in the study of democratic resiliency. Patterns of backsliding have revealed the contingent and potentially contested underpinnings of democratic institutions in any political order, given the presence (whether latent or active) of authoritarian political and cultural currents. Democracy is, therefore, best understood not as a standardized regime template or a static endpoint of political development, but rather as a dialectical frontier that advances ‒ and sometimes recedes ‒ according to the dynamic interplay countervailing forces.

Chapter 14 presents a dynamic model of long-term, art historical trends and shows the complexity of overlapping styles and movements. It is based on a modification af a dynamic model of development on the timescale of the human life course. The basic evolution rules are those of simultaneously operating processes of consolidation of the status quo and processes of innovation driven by a familiarity-novelty optimum. The simulation explores different scenarios, one of which generates the typical art-historical pattern of overlapping continuous as well as discontinuous processes.

Chapter 7 discusses the various rules that govern arbitration proceedings and issues that may arise. The chapter focuses on the process of arbitration, including the preliminary hearing, obtaining evidence, and presenting both documentary evidence and witness testimony. Scheduling hearings should be done early in the process, considering the availability of arbitrators, lawyers, parties and witnesses. Virtual hearings became much more common during the global pandemic due to cost and time efficiency. However, challenges related to cybersecurity, data protection, technical knowledge, accessibility, and witness testimony must be addressed in virtual proceedings. The future of hearings may involve a combination of virtual and in-person elements, depending on the preference and circumstances of the parties.

Recent historians usually see Home Secretary Robert Peel as a committed opponent of real criminal law reforms, content to hang large numbers of people. He did indeed enter office determined to diffuse reform momentum in parliament and succeeded in doing so, but only for a time. In fact, in pursuing the two reforms that William Paley deemed crucial to relinquishing the “Bloody Code” – preventive policing and more deterrent secondary punishments – Peel behaved like someone who believed his concessions might not hold back the tide of urbane public opinion for long. This was also apparent in his alterations to sentencing practices at assizes and his increasingly careful attention to execution levels in London. Even his consolidation measures were of more genuinely humane consequence than is usually recognized. Indeed, so adaptable to urbane opinion did Peel seem to his older, more determinedly conservative colleagues that by 1830 he inspired their distrust.

This chapter applies the GVC framework in order to progress our understanding of the global TV system. Among the drivers that are changing the TV industry, three stand out: digitisation, consolidation, and vertical disintegration (also known as de-verticalisation). While the first two trends have long been identified as driving forces, the same cannot be said about the third. The phenomenon of segmentation is less known and associated with the formation of GVCs. The chapter expands on its prevalence in television and explain its role in globalising the industry. The final section provides an introductory outline of the TV GVC and its segments.

The next battleground involves the admissibility of sovereign bond claims in investment treaty arbitration, which emerges as a complicated issue particularly when a large group of bondholders bring a case as a bundle against the debtor sovereign. To attain an appropriate balance between bondholder protection and respect for orderly debt restructuring, this study has conceptualised investment arbitration proceedings as a supplemental leverage available for bondholders as a group by which a stay of arbitral proceedings is imposed and lifted amid the fair progress of sovereign debt restructuring processes.

In the 1770s, the rapid expansion of the Company’s territorial empire sparked social and political unease in Britain, fueling efforts to reform and to rein in the corporation. For many commentators, few reforms seemed more important than dissolving the Company’s independent army. For years, disagreements about the relative authority of Company and royal forces had complicated British military operations in India, and “consolidating” the two bodies into a unified British Army seemed the clear solution. This chapter explores how the Company’s white officers pushed back against this campaign, establishing a coherent political community in India and an influential lobbying group in Britain. In a flurry of petitions and pamphlets, officers maintained that “consolidation” was both unjust and imprudent: Royal officers would not know how to lead sepoys or to negotiate a war in India. When this written campaign failed to halt the planned reform, white officers across India staged a mutiny, which Company and Crown officials proved unable or unwilling to rebuff. Plans for consolidation were abandoned, while the officers’ collective influence over imperial policies was further solidified.

Soil consisting of grains, water and air is an example of a multiphase material (or mixture). The basic concepts for multiphase materials, such as volume fraction, partial quantities and interaction forces are introduced. The Darcy's equation and balance equations for mixtures are introduced.

On their basis, the consolidation theory is presented. The equations describing steady and unsteady groundwater flow are derived. Transport within groundwater by means of convection, diffusion and dispersion is explained. The main principles describing unsaturated soil are presented: capillary and osmotic suction, the function of filters is explained. The soil–water characteristic curve is also introduced. The effective stresses in unsaturated soil are discussed.

Chapter 15 summarizes the fundamentals of geohydrology. This chapter provides a brief overview of the physical properties of wet soils in Section 15.1 and discussion of processes associated with high water content in Section 15.2.

Chapter 7 concludes the book by revisiting key claims and discussing the implications of the research for broader debates in the fields of comparative politics, social movements, and democracy-promotion activities. Here we see that much of the focus of democracy promotion institutions and programs may be misplaced. Rather than focusing on existing political parties in hybrid regimes, as many democracy-promotion programs do, it is repressed societal actors that are more likely to mobilize supporters, win elections, and form the first government after an authoritarian ouster. These are the individuals and groups most in need of skills-building and governance training. Furthermore, much of the programmatic emphasis of democracy-promotion work falls on enhancing the “liberal” qualities of democracy: freedom of speech, human rights, inclusion of women and minorities, and the protection of civil liberties. However, what the cases here show is that democratic consolidation is most threatened by unmet benchmarks in economic and physical security after the fall of an authoritarian regime. When these benchmarks are not met, the support for democracy declines and a wedge is opened for the return of authoritarian actors. The chapter offers suggestions for future research based upon the findings.

Key Learning Points

1. 1. Chest X-ray anteroposterior (AP) films magnify the heart and mediastinum, and obscure the left lower zone.

2. 2. When assessing the correct positioning of internal jugular central venous catheter placement, as a rule of thumb, the tip should lie at the level of the carina and to the right of the mediastinum.

3. 3. When assessing the correct positioning of an endotracheal tube, the tip should lie 5–7 cm above the carina.

4. 4. When assessing the lung fields, divide the lungs into three zones: upper, middle and lower thirds. Compare each side and check for asymmetry.

5. 5. Consolidation refers to small airways and alveoli that are filled with material – pus, fluid, blood or cells. Consolidation is not synonymous with infection.

A perusal of the statute book might suggest that there was little change to weddings law during the 1920s and 1930s. There were, however, numerous Church of England Measures that altered the rules governing its weddings and caused them to diverge from those applicable to the newly disestablished Church in Wales. And there were even more orders validating marriages that had not taken place in accordance with the law, illustrating how often mistakes were made. There were also changes in how couples married, with the balance between Anglican and civil weddings shifting in the light of the church’s growing reluctance to conduct the remarriages of the divorced and the changing implications of marrying in a register office. While the Marriage Act 1949 finally brought all of the laws regulating marriage and weddings together into a single statute, it did very little by way of recasting the terms in which the law was stated, even less by way of removing anomalies, and absolutely nothing by way of reconsidering the way in which different types of marriages were regulated in different ways. All it achieved was to consolidate the complexity of the existing law.

This chapter aims to open the black box of co-creation, look at its constituent parts and inner mechanics, identify the drivers of and barriers to different parts of the process, and highlight the tools that may support and facilitate the co-creation of public value. Hence, to provide a baseline for subsequent analysis, it establishes an analytical framework for studying processes of co-creation. While recognizing that the dynamic processes of co-creation are often extremely complex and full of gaps, overlaps, jumps, feedback loops, and iterations, it makes sense for heuristic reasons to speak of four phases in the process of co-creating public solutions: 1) initiation; 2) design; 3) implementation; and 4) consolidation, upscaling, and diffusion. Each of these phases can be broken down into three interlacing sub-phases. This chapter carefully elaborates what goes on in the different phases and sub-phases of co-creation and identifies relevant drivers and barriers that may affect the internal dynamics of these phases and sub-phases.

To allow identification of stimuli, sensory input is initially held briefly in sensory memory. It is then held in a short-term store (STS), where it can receive the additional processing required to form a permanent memory. The existence of separate short- and long-term stores is supported by research on amnesia, demonstrating that brain damage can affect one but not the other. Forgetting in STS may be caused by decay, and by interference from other memories. STS can hold information retrieved from long-term memory when required for activities such as reading; to reflect this, it is now called working memory. Baddeley proposed that working memory has 3 components: the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketch pad, and central executive. Consolidation theory suggests that the formation of a permanent memory requires time for the strengthening of synaptic connections; there also appears to be a consolidation process that can occur over years. We cannot attend to all the stimuli that seek entry into working memory; change blindness provides a striking example. Some theories suggest that selection occurs early in processing, others that attention can be allocated flexibly after stimuli have been identified. With practice, processing can become automatic, so that stimuli no longer require attention.