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2 results

  • 17 - Foreign Trade

  • from Part II - 1000 to 1800
  • Edited by Debin Ma, Hitotsubashi University, Tokyo, Richard von Glahn, University of California, Los Angeles
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Economic History of China
    Published online:
    07 February 2022
    Print publication:
    24 February 2022, pp 637-675

  • Summary

    Foreign trade always mattered in imperial China. Especially during the middle period and early modern times, China experienced enormous growth and expansion of foreign trade. According to Confucian concepts, merchants belonged to the lowest echelon of society; agriculture, not trade, was considered the basis of a stable state and society. Most Chinese governments indeed sought to maintain more or less strict control over foreign commerce and those who were responsible for it. But one has to emphasize the co-operative rather than antagonistic relationship with markets and with the merchant class during most of China’s imperial history. In addition, we can observe certain characteristics and qualitative changes throughout the centuries.

  • Modes and textures of secondary minerals on Chinese coins of different ages

  • J. N. Fang, L. P. Tan, E. Huang
  • Journal:
    Mineralogical Magazine / Volume 67 / Issue 1 / February 2003
    Published online by Cambridge University Press:
    05 July 2018, pp. 23-29

  • A thorough assessment of the secondary minerals on 796 Chinese Pb-Cu-Sn-Zn bronze coins from ∼1100 BC to AD 1911 has been made. Malachite is found on more than 80% of the coins irrespective of their dynasties, but a botryoidal texture is only observed on the coins of the Song dynasty or older. Azurite, however, is seen in microscopic quantities on a single coin of ∼AD 1800, but is clearly visible on the Ming dynasty or older coins. Cerussite is a common secondary mineral of the Qin dynasty and older coins, though it has not been found on the Qing dynasty or younger coins. Cuprite is observed on the Song dynasty and older coins.