Chapter 6 investigates how the duopoly, by radically curtailing numbers, inadvertently transformed actors from vagrants in need of a patron’s protection to celebrities lionized by courtiers and commoners alike. Managerial choices coalesced with the historical accident of a monarch so intimately associated with the theatre that he took two actresses as mistresses. Playhouse architecture also exerted an unexpected phenomenological effect on their status. The intimacy characteristic of the Restoration playhouse transmogrified performed intersubjectivity into the crackling exchange of eroticized energy. Unprecedented social freedom, economic mobility, and even contemporary portraiture attest to their new stature after 1660. That new prominence, however, invited attacks in print and person – against women especially – from men anxious about their own precarious hold on respectability. The choices, contingencies, and memories that made Restoration theatre such an unforgiving business nonetheless catapulted the acting profession toward the celebrity culture that would flourish in the following century.

Building upon issues identified in the preceding chapter, Chapter 2 delves into tensions stemming from divergent political ideologies, economic objectives and legal methods that come into play in the interpretation and implementation of international investment agreements. Tensions between different actors and their perspectives on these issues are also considered. The aim is to provide reflection on different issues that occupy the current debate on international investment regulation and challenges encountered when addressing them.

This chapter offers three main historical perspectives on corporate sustainability. First, it addresses the ‘what’, ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions of corporate sustainability. It investigates the ‘what’ question through the issues to which corporate sustainability has been addressed; the ‘how’ question through the modes which have been deployed to deliver corporate sustainability; and the ‘why’ question through the rationales that have been offered for corporate sustainability. Second, it investigates the ‘who’ question by unpacking the historical roles and relationships of society, business, government and the natural environment actors. Third, it examines the ‘when’ question through three key phases of corporate sustainability. It presents corporate sustainability in the contexts of: industrialisation in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; the rise of the modern corporation and ‘managerial capitalism’ in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries; and rapid internationalisation in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries bringing wider impacts of corporate power and the greater awareness of the Anthropocene and human interdependency. This analysis of three historical phases is illustrated through the experiences of two long-standing companies: Boots, the UK pharmacist, and Tata, the Indian conglomerate.

Molière’s career was punctuated by episodes of polemic. In the twin contexts of an ideological quarrel concerning theatre’s morality and a commercial war between rival theatres, he confronted primarily two types of enemy: the dévots who condemned theatre in general and his rivals who took against his theatre in particular. His private life was attacked as well as his public one (as author, actor and company leader). He was sometimes condemned with disdain as the ‘best farce actor in France’, sometimes with dread as a ‘demon clothed in flesh’. Faced with plots and threats of censorship, Molière shone by his exploitation of these polemical episodes to invent new theatrical forms and confirm his supremacy. From Les Précieuses ridicules to Dom Juan, via L’École des femmes and Tartufe, his entire output can be seen to derive from a conflictual logic, whereby each new play is generated by the debates surrounding the preceding one, in a process of constant negotiation with the legitimising powers whose support he sought: the Parisian public and those with political power. Polemic was thus a driving creative force and laughter became Molière’s most fearful weapon in bringing down his rivals.

Ancient and modern observers of the Roman court have often characterized it as a fundamentally theatrical space. Court ‘performances’ therefore included senators flattering the imperial family, imperial family members costumed as deities, conspirators disguising their intentions, and the emperor himself, who could play a variety of roles. But performance in the formal sense was also central to court culture, so this chapter explores the sorts of performances occurring in court contexts (tragedy, comedy, pantomime, storytelling, etc.). It also examines the wider role in the court of the (often low-status) performers, including actors, pantomime dancers, storytellers, and jesters. They fundamentally shaped the court’s cultural life, and could themselves be powerful, popular, and wealthy. But they were also disposable court bodies with precarious court positions, since their performances could incite political controversy, and they stood in the place of others who wanted closer access to the emperor.

Beth Holmgren charts the modes in which men functioned as gatekeepers in nineteenth-century professional theatre, which showed not only the parochialism of their views but a deep anxiety around sexuality that required the disciplining of women’s bodies on and offstage. She reveals how actresses pioneered new ways of living that escaped entrapments of conventional marriage and which allowed some financial autonomy. Beata Guczalska details the treatment of actors from the twentieth century to today; although not persecuted as in other European contexts, actors were still subjected to a lack of social recognition and stability, poverty and a dependence on patrons. A history of acting is also shown to be one of shifting technologies: lighting, photography, radio, illustrated newspapers and cinema. Marek Waszkiel explores both the political and satirical valences of puppets as well as their aesthetic forms. He also analyses the development of acting in relation to objects that thinks acting through dialectical relationships. In this way, the history of puppetry is embedded in a history of ‘acting’, and this offers a new mode of considering performer training, craft and profession.

This chapter introduces the reader to the book. It first describes the overall purpose of the book that brings together eighteen chapters that use money as a lens to address a wide range of cases from different disciplinary perspectives. Taken together its chapters balance empirical and theoretical work and use multiple methods. While the book does not force an overarching theoretical framework, it aims to facilitate overarching engagement and to encourage new multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary research into the role of money and resources on migration. Secondly, the chapter describes how aims, actors, and instruments are three important elements of analysis that return implicitly or explicitly in the individual chapters. It gives examples of how the lens of money can bring new insights to each of these elements in blurring formal distinctions. Thirdly, the chapter introduces the three parts of the book: migration, participation, and citizenship. It explains the choice for these three parts and how and why the distinct chapters connect under each part.

This chapter portrays Ibsen as a world dramatist with commercial productions touring five continents between 1889 and 1916. These productions travelled on the well-established commercial theatre touring circuits of the late nineteenth century that used the shipping, rail and road networks of trade routes that linked European nations with their colonial settlements and diasporas. This early distribution of Ibsen's plays is visualized in the chapter using data from IbsenStage (https://ibsenstage.hf.uio.no), the online database that holds 23,604 production records of Ibsen’s plays. At the heart of this chapter are the stories of the star actors who played Ibsen’s characters on their international touring circuits to show off their virtuoso skills.

This chapter considers the contribution Ibsen made to theatre practice in the late nineteenth century by concentrating on audiences, auditoria and acting. It begins with glimpses of two nights in the theatre separated by fifty years. The first glimpse comes from the opening of one of Ibsen’s least known plays, Olaf Liljekrans, in January 1857, at Komediehuset (the playhouse) in Bergen, where Ibsen did his theatrical apprenticeship. The second glimpse comes from a performance of one of his most famous plays, Hedda Gabler, in February 1909, at Den Nationale Scene (the National Stage) in Bergen. The changes in the practice of acting, as illustrated by these two performances, are analysed with regard to changes in the design of auditoria and cultures of spectatorship. The chapter argues that three modes – the spatial, the psychological and the spectatorial – are all intertwined in Ibsen’s major innovations in the practice of theatre.

Chapter 4 focuses on the variety of governors in areas of limited statehood. State and non-state, local, national, transnational, as well as international actors are motivated to engage in governance in areas of limited statehood if certain conditions are present. Moreover, we find the entire range of modes of governance, from hierarchical steering including the use of force to inclusive, participatory, and deliberative governance. We start with external state governance, including international and regional organizations, development agencies, and foreign governments. We then turn to the non-state sector, starting with (I)NGOs and multi-stakeholder partnerships. A very different type of actor are (multinational) companies who are usually not inclined to become governors to begin with. In contrast, “traditional” authorities, such as tribal chiefs and community leaders as well as non-state justice institutions tend to be among the most important indigenous governors in many areas of limited statehood. A rather unlikely group of governors are violent non-state actors such as rebel groups or warlords.

An analysis of the nature of modern “actors” or actorhood.Offers direct arguments about how the modern (European, now global) cultural system constructs the modern actor as an authorized agent for various interests. Seeing modern actorhood in this way helps greatly in explaining a number of otherwise anomalous or little analyzed features of modern individuals, organizations, and states.

Reflections on how sociological neoinstitutionalism has been used to understand the rise, nature, and impact of the modern world order as itself a society. Discussion of globalization, and large-scale social change, from this perspective. Includes a discussion of Anglo-European modernity as a quasi-religious system.

Unsustainable behaviour is often blamed on the ‘culture’ of organisations, businesses or households. In this chapter I unpick what culture means in the context of sustainability, and in particular how it can underpin resistance to change or alternatively can be a dynamic and creative force for more sustainable outcomes. The concept of ‘sustainability cultures’ outlined in this chapter offers a structured way of thinking about and investigating culture. It has been applied in a wide variety of situations to help explore cultural attributes that shape outcomes such as energy use and mobility choices by households, businesses and organisations. The chapter also discusses and exemplifies how cultures are both shaped and constrained by exogenous factors which may constrain or facilitate cultural change. This kind of analysis can assist in identifying policy interventions which can remove barriers or support latent potential for cultural change. Seen in sustainability terms, culture is not a bystander, but a core driver of outcomes that are critical to long-term human survival.

We now know that in Classical Athens there were as many as 200 occupations. This essay shows that not all occupations enjoyed an equal amount of status and prestige. Four occupations are studied: actors, especially those in the Associations of Dionysiac Artists, philosophers, doctors, and sculptors. These occupations required extensive training and acquired some features associated with modern professions.