One of the most essential prerequisites in plant breeding is to have a maximum collection of germplasm materials with all sorts of variability. As a part of the programme under the All India Coordinated Research Projects on Spices, totally 196 germplasm accessions of small cardamom are being maintained as field gene bank repository at the Cardamom Research Station, Pampadumpara. Tropical evergreen forests of the Indian Western Ghats and Sri Lankan Central Highlands are recognized as the home of cardamom. The area and production of cardamom are maximum in Kerala followed by Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Variations among the germplasm collections in morphological and biometrical characters as well as for yield have been studied and reported in this paper. Accessions with distinct morphological marker characters, such as compound panicle types, terminal panicle bearing, narrow leaf types, pink pseudostem types, dark green bold capsules with high-yield potential and biotic-stress tolerant types, are being evaluated and conserved in this repository. The assessment of genetic diversity is an essential prerequisite for undertaking crop breeding activities to evolve suitable area and region-specific variety. Sixty-seven cardamom accessions were studied for genetic diversity by evaluating 14 unique characters for 3 years (2016–2018). Almost all accessions have shown significant variability for most of the biometric and biotic stress characters. Results have indicated a greater magnitude of genetic diversity of small cardamom present among accessions representing whole evergreen tropical forest of the Western Ghats.

While mixed-species flocks of birds (hereafter ‘flocks’) have been widely studied, few studies have looked at the effect of habitat structure on flock presence and flocking propensity within a site. Here, we employ a use-availability approach in locations with flocks and random locations to ask whether habitat characteristics influence the presence of flocks, and whether structurally similar microhabitats support compositionally similar flocks. We also examine the effect of habitat on flock size and species richness, and the effect of intraspecifically gregarious flock participants on habitat selection. We find that flocks use a narrow subset of available tree density and canopy cover variation and prefer relatively less-dense areas with large trees and a complex foliage structure. Similar microhabitats do not result in compositionally similar flocks, and while foliage complexity was associated with flock size, no habitat characteristics influenced species richness. Flocks led by the intraspecifically gregarious western crowned warbler (Phylloscopus occipitalis), a potential nuclear species, showed preference for high foliage complexity and tree density. Thus, habitat preferences of intraspecifically gregarious species, which are followed by other species, could play a strong role in habitat selection in flocks. This suggests that degraded forests that cannot provide a suitable range of tree density, canopy cover, and/or complex vegetation structure may not support some core flock species around which flocks form, which may lead to decreased flocking in those patches.

The Nilgiri tahr Nilgiritragus hylocrius is an Endangered species of mountain ungulate endemic to the Western Ghats of India, a biodiversity hotspot. Habitat fragmentation, hunting and a restricted range are the major threats to this species. Although several surveys have assessed the species’ status, a population estimate based on a scientifically robust method is needed. We used the double-observer method to estimate the population of the Nilgiri tahr in the Anamalai Tiger Reserve, a protected area in the Western Ghats. We walked 257 km of transects across the Reserve, covering 36 grassland blocks (i.e. clusters of montane grasslands that were relatively separate from each other). We counted a minimum of 422 individuals in 28 groups, and estimated the tahr population in the study area to be 510 individuals (95% CI 300–858) in 35 groups. The male:female ratio was 0.71 and the young:female ratio was 0.56. Comparing our estimate with previous surveys suggests that the Nilgiri tahr population in Anamalai Tiger Reserve is stable. We found the double-observer survey method to be appropriate for population estimation and long-term monitoring of this species, and make recommendations for improved field protocols to facilitate the implementation of the method in the tropical mountains of the Western Ghats. Our findings suggest that the Reserve harbours 20–25% of the global population of the Nilgiri tahr, highlighting the area's importance for the conservation of this species.

We monitored native forest regeneration over 11 y in a eucalyptus plantation and compared it with the neighbouring primary forest. For the plantation forest, we hypothesized that species richness, density, basal area and densities of old-growth species would increase over time, and compared to the primary forest, plantation forest would have higher species richness and density, but lower densities of old-growth species. In 2016, we repeated the protocol of a study that sampled the plantation forest in 2005, with thirty 10 × 10-m plots and enumerating trees (≥10 cm diameter), saplings (>1 to <10 cm diameter) and seedlings (<1 cm diameter). In the plantation forest, for trees, the species richness, density of gap, bird-dispersed and mammal-dispersed species increased by 67%, 156%, 116% and 238% respectively; whereas for saplings, density of gap, bird-dispersed and small-seeded species declined by 45.2%, 51% and 18.2% respectively over time; and seedling densities did not change across functional groups. Stand basal area increased by 80.1% in the plantation forest. The primary forest had 446% greater density of closed-canopy trees compared with plantation forest. Contrary to our prediction, the plantation forest did not accumulate significant densities of old-growth species over time, probably due to demographic filters that prevent them from attaining maturity.

An account of thelotremoid species of Graphidaceae in India is provided, which includes 124 species in 24 genera. Ocellularia and Thelotrema are the most diverse genera represented by 34 and 18 species, respectively. Type specimens were re-examined and additional samples studied morphologically and chemically. One new species, Ocellularia upretii S. Joshi, Divakar, Lumbsch & Lücking, is described; it is characterized by a greyish green thallus, porinoid ascomata, brown proper exciple, simple, carbonized columella, clear hymenium, transversely septate, amyloid ascospores of 110–125×15–20 µm and an absence of secondary metabolites. Asteristion australianum, Astrochapsa mirabilis, Cruentotrema cruentatum, C. kurandense, Ocellularia violacea and Thelotrema adjectum are reported as new to the country, and Astrochapsa mirabilis, Melanotrema submicrosporoides, Ocellularia annuloelevata, O. subkeralensis and Rhabdodiscus verrucoisidiatus are proposed as new combinations. Diploschistes awasthii, Ocellularia gupeti, O. leucina, O. mahabalei, Thelotrema confertum and T. verrucorugosum are synonymized under D. scruposus, O. neomasonhalei, O. urceolaris, O. thelotremoides, Chapsa leprocarpoides and T. rugatulum, respectively, with Ocellularia canariana and O. verrucomarginata reduced to synonymy with O. allosporoides.

The new combination Microchirita cristata (Dalzell) D.J.Middleton is made.

The effects of fragmentation and overstorey tree diversity on tree regeneration were assessed in tropical rain forests of the Western Ghats, India. Ninety plots were sampled for saplings (1–5 cm diameter at breast height (dbh); 5×5-m plots) and overstorey trees (>9.55 cm dbh; 20×20-m plots) within two fragments (32 ha and 18 ha) and two continuous forests. We tested the hypotheses that fragmentation and expected seed-dispersal declines (1) reduce sapling densities and species richness of all species and old-growth species, and increase recruitment of early-successional species, (2) reduce the prevalence of dispersed recruits and (3) increase influence of local overstorey on sapling densities and richness. Continuous forests and fragments had similar sapling densities and species richness overall, but density and richness of old-growth species declined by 62% and 48%, respectively, in fragments. Fragments had 39% lower densities and 24% lower richness of immigrant saplings (presumed dispersed into sites as conspecific adults were absent nearby), and immigrant densities of old-growth bird-dispersed species declined by 79%. Sapling species richness (overall and old-growth) increased with overstorey species richness in fragments, but was unrelated to overstorey richness in continuous forests. Our results show that while forest fragments retain significant sapling diversity, losses of immigrant recruits and increased overstorey influence strengthen barriers to natural regeneration of old-growth tropical rain forests.

When animals or groups of animals in their wild habitats come close to each other within a defined distance, it is termed as an association. Observing two groups of the lion-tailed macaque at Nelliyampathy and Andiparai forests of the Western Ghats of India, we asked whether the lion-tailed macaque associations with the sympatric Nilgiri langur and bonnet macaque were by chance or had any biological significance. Employing ‘all occurrences’ sampling, we recorded an association if a group of another primate species came within 30 m of the focal group of the lion-tailed macaque. Date, time, associating species, activity of the study species and of the associating species, type of interaction, aggressor and the recipient, species displaced and duration of the association were recorded. We used the Waser gas model to calculate the expected frequency and duration of associations and compared them with the observed associations. The lion-tailed macaque spent less time in associations than expected. The lion-tailed macaque and the Nilgiri langur initiated associations less often, and remained in association for less time, than expected by chance. Whereas the expected and observed initiation of associations between the lion-tailed macaque and the Nilgiri langur in Nelliyampathy was significantly different (expected rate = 153; observed rate = 64), in Andiparai, it was not (expected rate = 55.5; observed rate = 61). The expected and observed association duration was significantly different in Nelliyampathy (expected duration = 54 min; observed duration = 15 min) and Andiparai (expected duration = 48 min; observed duration = 19 min). In contrast, we detected few differences between observed and expected association frequency for the lion-tailed macaque and the bonnet macaque. Aggressive interactions were common in areas where density of the Nilgiri langur groups was high. This is the first study on Asian primates using the ideal gas approach to show that primates do not form active associations with each other.

Along with plant sources, arthropods (such as millipedes) are also known for their antioxidant activities that can help combat human ailments. Therefore, methanolic extracts of males and females of two endemic giant pill-millipedes of the Western Ghats (Arthrosphaera fumosa Pocock and Arthrosphaera magna Attems) were evaluated for antioxidant potential. The bioactive principles and activities assessed were total phenolics, total antioxidant activity, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl or DPPH radical scavenging, ferrous ion chelation, reducing power and hydrogen peroxidase scavenging. Significant differences were shown between the two species, the sexes and the sexes within millipede species in total antioxidant activity, DPPH radical scavenging and ferrous ion chelation. Total phenolics and EC50 of DPPH radical scavenging activity differed significantly only between species and the sexes. This study clearly demonstrated that the antioxidant capacity of the methanolic extract of Arthrosphaera spp. is comparable to the ascorbic acid standard and possesses potential scavenging ability against reactive oxygen species generated during oxidative stress.

Body size in animals is an important trait affecting species niche differentiation and restricting similarity. Using camera-trap data over 2008–2010, we used photo-captures from 50 cameras spread throughout Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (Western Ghats, India) to assess the activity budgets of 21 mammal species ranging in body size from 1 kg to 2088 kg. Large carnivores were mostly cathemeral whereas small cat and civet species were purely nocturnal. Mongoose species were mainly diurnal possibly due to their terrestrial feeding habits and reduce competition with other sympatric small carnivores. All large and small-bodied herbivores were cathemeral and nocturnal respectively, whereas medium-sized herbivores were active during the day. Overall, small mammals tended to be mostly nocturnal, whereas large mammals were cathemeral mainly due to energy requirements and other ecological constraints. Body size showed significant negative relationship with mean vector length (clustering of activity in time) thus implying that the daily amount of time being active increased with body size. The shorter activity time (12 h) in small mammals resulted in higher mean vector length probably to utilize the available time to fulfil energy needs. The observed cathemeral activity in large mammals may be associated with travel over larger areas to acquire large quantities of food therefore they are active for a longer duration. Our results clearly support the allometric relationship between body size and activity budgets in mammals and its association with niche differentiation.

Little is known about the role of crabs as seed dispersers and predators. Recently, there has been interest in understanding their influence on plant recruitment in coastal forests. Secondary seed removal by crabs in a swamp-specialist tree, Myristica fatua, was investigated in the rare and patchy freshwater Myristica swamps in the Western Ghats in India. Tethered-line experiments were used to determine the role of crabs as secondary seed-removal agents in two study sites. Crabs transported a large percentage (63.3%) of seeds (n = 60) placed on the forest floor compared with rodents (25%) and other unknown agents (13.3%). Simultaneous choice experiments suggested that the nutrient-rich arils covering seeds were consumed, but there was no evidence for seed predation by crabs. A small percentage (13.3%) of monitored seeds (n = 60) germinated from within crab burrows. The spatial scale of secondary removal by crabs was restricted to < 10 m. In these fragmented swamp forests, secondary removal by crabs retains seeds largely within the swamps, where conditions for their establishment and survival are optimal. Thus, secondary seed removal by crabs could provide temporal and spatial refugia from seed predators such as rodents in Myristica fatua.

A new lichenicolous ascomycete, Arthonia diorygmae, is described from the thallus and ascomata of Diorygma junghuhnii. The new species is characterized by rounded to irregular, applanate to convex ascomata up to 0·3 mm in diameter, a slightly whitish pruinose disc, transversely 1-septate, hyaline to greyish ascospores (13–)14–15(–21)×5–7 µm, and its lichenicolous habitat. It is known from the subtropical region of the Western Ghats in India and appears to be widespread due to the large distribution of the host species.

Memecylon wayanadense Ratheesh, Sivu & Pradeep, a new species of Melastomataceae from the Wayanad forests of Kerala, India, is described and illustrated. The new species is allied to Memecylon angustifolium, M. rivulare and M. sivadasanii but differs in habit, leaf shape, sclereid type, inflorescence type and position, and the shape and size of the sepals and petals. An UPGMA analysis of 20 RAPD primers resulted in two major clusters with Memecylon sivadasanii in one cluster and M. rivulare, M. angustifolium and M. wayanadense in the second cluster. Memecylon wayanadense forms a subgroup within the second cluster.

Terrestrial protected areas are often designated in inaccessible high elevation regions, and usually targeted towards conservation of charismatic large mammals and birds. It has been suggested that such protected areas, with partial coverage of riverine habitats, may not be adequate for conservation of freshwater taxa such as fishes. Also, protected areas are often designated in upstream catchments of dam reservoirs, and conservation of freshwater biodiversity is usually not a priority. We investigated the importance of existing protected areas for conservation of stream fishes within and across three dammed and two undammed rivers in the southern Western Ghats, India (a global biodiversity hotspot). Comparisons of stream sites in protected and unprotected areas were restricted to mid elevations because of confounding factors of dams, elevation and stream order. For dammed rivers, endemic and total species richness was significantly higher inside protected areas than unprotected areas. Total fish species richness increased with decreasing elevation and endemic species richness peaked at mid elevations. Species found in comparable stream orders across dammed and undammed midland river reaches were similar. Intensity of threats such as sand mining, dynamite fishing, pollution and introduced invasive fishes was higher in unprotected than in protected areas. Lack of awareness among managers has also led to the occurrence of some threats within protected areas. However, existing protected areas are vital for conservation of endemic fishes. Our results support the need for extending the scope of terrestrial protected areas towards better representation of freshwater ecosystems and biodiversity.

Two new species of Amomum, A. agastyamalayanum V.P.Thomas & M.Sabu and A. newmanii M.Sabu & V.P.Thomas (Zingiberaceae), from the Western Ghats of Kerala are described and illustrated. Their distribution, ecology, IUCN status, etymology and similarities to related taxa are also discussed.

A new species of Impatiens L. (Balsaminaceae) from Wayanad District, Kerala, India, Impatiens mohana Ratheesh, Sujana & Anil, is described, illustrated and compared with I. modesta Wight.

Abandoned plantations of coffee, tea and other commercial crops offer opportunities for understanding ecological processes in modified forest ecosystems. Unlike tree plantations tea is maintained as a shrub with a continuous dense short canopy that precludes large-frugivore activity thereby limiting dispersal of forest species to such areas. In this study we determine how location and density of Grevillea robusta a shade tree in tea plantations and proximity of plantations to forests influences seed arrival from forests into the plantations. We also estimate the importance of dispersal modes in the colonization processes. We laid 10 × 10-m plots at three distance intervals from the forest edge in three different plantation types with varying shade tree densities. Within the plots we laid four 1× 1-m subplots at the corners of the plot. We estimated species richness, abundance and categorized the seeds into dispersal modes in these plots. Grevillea robusta increased species richness of seeds by three times and abundance of seeds by 3–30 times compared with plantations without them. Higher density of G. robusta increased seed input changed species composition and altered species dominance in the plantations. Distance to forests influenced seed arrival in plantations without G. robusta trees and plots 95 m from the forest did not have any seeds in them. No such effect was seen in plantations with G. robusta trees. Seeds dispersed by birds or a combination of birds and mammals contribute 30% of the seeds reaching the plantations with G. robusta and this was not influenced by distance from the forest. In plantations without G. robusta bird dispersal is restricted to 25 m from the forest edge. In general density of shade trees has a strong influence on seed arrival which can negate the forest proximity effect and enhance natural forest colonization.

Inter simple sequence repeat markers were used to assess the genetic diversity and population genetic structure in 12 populations of Nothapodytes nimmoniana from Western Ghats of India. A total of 16 selected primers produced 103 discernible bands, with 76 (73.7%) being polymorphic. The Nei's gene diversity (h) ranged from 0.1166 to 0.2124, with an average of 0.1518 at the population level and 0.2965 at the species level indicating high genetic diversity. The Shannon's index (I) was estimated to be 0.2189 within populations (range 0.1703–0.2947) and 0.4352 at the species level. The analysis of molecular variance showed that the genetic variation was found mainly within populations (73%), but variance among populations was only 27% and its value, ΦPT = 0.271, P < 0.001, implied that high genetic differentiation among populations. In addition, Nei's differentiation coefficient (GST) was found to be high (0.4882) and the gene flow (Nm) was low (0.5242), confirming the high population genetic differentiation. The unweighted pair-group method using arithmetic average clustering elicited similar results. Based on this, we propose conservation strategy for this plant species.

The Indian Desmos viridiflorus (Annonaceae) was first described as Unona viridiflora by Beddome, but this was a later homonym of a species from South America. The correct citation of the species is therefore Desmos viridiflorus Saff. (1912). Unona viridiflora Bedd. is lectotypified.

We investigated the pollinator assemblage in Myristica dactyloides, a dioecious tree species occupying the intermediate canopy stratum of the mid- and high-elevation wet evergreen forests and endemic to Sri Lanka and the Western Ghats of India. We surveyed two populations and, in one of them, marked four male and three female trees for observations on floral display and insect foraging, and two female trees for experimental pollination. Yellow sticky traps were used to sample insects in the canopy during the flowering season of December 2007 in addition to direct observations of insect activity in 2006. Myristicaceae members from other tropical areas have been reported to be specialized to beetle pollination, but our observations provide evidence of a generalist pollination system in M. dactyloides, composed of small, diverse insects: thysanopterans (thrips), coleopterans (beetles), halictid bees and dipterans (syrphid and phorid flies). Quantifying floral display, we found that female inflorescences were smaller, offered no reward and attracted significantly fewer pollinators in comparison to male inflorescences. Fruit set was low and could be attributed to a 29% flower abscission and abortion of young fruits, but a reasonably high natural pollination efficiency combined with pollination experiments established that there was no pollination limitation in the study population.