Recognition — States — Legal personality of a State under English law — Whether recognized as a State by United Kingdom Government — Whether Ukraine having capacity to issue bonds — Bond issuance illegal under Ukrainian law

Relationship of international law and municipal law — Dealings between sovereign States — Governments — Rule of non-justiciability of dealings between sovereign States in English courts — Public policy exception — Whether public policy exception applicable — Duress — Whether defence of duress justiciable — Jus cogens — Use of force — Russia — Threat of force — Relationship of jus cogens with municipal law

Reprisals and countermeasures — Countermeasures — Ukraine — Russia — Violation of territorial sovereignty — Whether non-repayment of bonds justified as a proportionate countermeasure — Whether doctrine of countermeasures recognized under domestic law — Relationship of international law and municipal law — The law of England

Economics, trade and finance — World Trade Organization — General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade — Relationship with other international agreements — North American Free Trade Agreement — Measures allegedly taken contrary to GATT said to be countermeasures responding to violation of NAFTA — WTO dispute settlement mechanism

International tribunals — Jurisdiction — Discretion not to exercise jurisdiction — Whether inherent power — WTO dispute settlement system — Whether Panel empowered to decline to exercise jurisdiction — Whether dispute between two States parties to NAFTA should be heard by arbitral tribunal under NAFTA rather than by panel under the WTO Dispute Settlement Understanding

Reprisals and countermeasures — Nature and scope — Relationship between countermeasures under international law and measures to secure compliance with laws and regulations within the WTO — Whether falling under GATT Article XX(d)

Treaties — Interpretation — Effect — Interpretation of GATT Article XX(d) — Relationship between GATT and other international agreements

Environment — War — Nuclear weapons — Effect of use of nuclear weapons upon the environment — Treaties for the protection of the environment — Whether applicable to military operations in time of armed conflict — Relationship between international environmental law and the law of armed conflict — Principle 24, Rio Declaration — United Nations Environmental Modification Treaty, 1977 — Additional Protocol I, 1977, Article 35(3)

Human rights — War — Nuclear weapons — Whether human rights treaties applicable to military operations in time of armed conflict — Right to life — International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966 — Relationship between the law of human rights and the law of armed conflict

International Court of Justice — Advisory jurisdiction — Request by United Nations General Assembly — Request for advisory opinion concerning whether the use or threat of use of nuclear weapons permitted under international law — Whether within the jurisdiction of the Court — United Nations Charter, Article 96(1) — Discretion of Court not to reply to question — Statute of the Court, Article 65(1) — Whether question poses a legal question — Whether motives for asking the question relevant — Role of the Court in advisory proceedings

International criminal law — Genocide — Genocide Convention, 1948 — Nuclear weapons — Whether use of nuclear weapons would constitute offence of genocide

International organizations — United Nations — General Assembly — Competence — Security issues — Nuclear weapons — Role of the Assembly in view of involvement of the Security Council — Whether Assembly competent to request advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice — Resolutions of the General Assembly — Whether a source of law — Normative significance of resolutions in the light of the practice of States

Reprisals and countermeasures — Reprisals involving the use of force — Whether armed reprisals lawful in time of peace — Belligerent reprisals — Use of nuclear weapons — Threat to use nuclear weapons

Sources of international law — Custom — Requirements of custom — Importance of actual State practice — Persistent objector principle — Opinio juris — United Nations General Assembly resolutions — Normative significance — Resolutions on the use of nuclear weapons

War and armed conflict — Nuclear weapons — Whether use or threat to use nuclear weapons lawful — Applicable law — Relevance of law on the environment and human rights — Law regarding the use of force — Right of self-defence — Relationship between right of self-defence and law regulating the conduct of hostilities — Possible tension between law of armed conflict and right of self-defence — Restrictions on the right of self-defence — Proportionality and necessity — Concept of threat to use force — Principles of the law of armed conflict regarding weaponry and targets — Unnecessary suffering principle — Requirement that civilians and civilian objects should not be attacked — Principle of proportionality — Collateral damage — Prohibition of poison and poisoned weapons — Martens clause — Applicability to the use of nuclear weapons — Neutrality — Obligations of belligerents towards neutral States — Characteristics of nuclear weapons — Whether use of nuclear weapons ever reconcilable with law of armed conflict — Whether use of nuclear weapons lawful in extreme circumstances of self-defence

State succession — Union of States — German reunification — Demise of German Democratic Republic with accession of its Läuml;nder to Federal Republic of Germany — Whether constituting case of State succession — Continuity of the law — Criminal law — Prosecution of head of intelligence of former German Democratic Republic for engaging in espionage against Federal Republic — Whether permissible following absorption of German Democratic Republic into Federal Republic — Whether any rules of international law governing internal relationship between two States in such circumstances

States — Continuity of States — Reunification of Germany — Whether former German Democratic Republic still to be regarded as foreign State in relation to Federal Republic of Germany — Whether absorption of former German Democratic Republic altering status of Federal Republic as subject of international law

Jurisdiction — Territorial — Jurisdiction over foreigners — Criminal jurisdiction — Espionage activities in peacetime — Offences committed abroad — Exercise of extraterritorial jurisdiction — Whether contrary to international law — Whether justified for protection of essential State interests

States — Conduct of foreign relations — Espionage in peacetime — Whether permissible under international law — Absence of treaty practice or rule of customary international law

Territory — Effects of changes of sovereignty — Reunification of Germany — Legal consequences — Whether spies of former German Democratic Republic subject to criminal prosecution in Federal Republic of Germany following reunification

Reprisals and countermeasures — Espionage — Appropriate countermeasures — Espionage by German Democratic Republic against Federal Republic of Germany — Criminal prosecutions — Whether appropriate following German reunification — Failure of German States to reach agreement concerning treatment of members of intelligence services of former German Democratic Republic — Whether amnesty should be granted by Federal Republic — Relevance of facts that activity in question was regarded as lawful in German Democratic Republic and did not involve human rights abuses

War and armed conflict — Spies — Hague Regulations on the Laws and Customs of Warfare on Land, 1907, Article 31 — Unlawfulness of prosecution for espionage where spy captured after having rejoined his regular army — Whether rule forming part of customary international law — Whether rule applicable by analogy to prevent prosecution by Federal Republic of Germany of former spy of German Democratic Republic following German reunification

Relationship of international law and municipal law — Customary international law — State succession — Rights of individuals — Whether any rules of customary international law concerning treatment of individuals following State succession — Espionage in peacetime — Whether any rule of customary international law concerning treatment of spies captured in peacetime on territory of their own State

Human rights — Procedure for enforcement — Fundamental rights under Basic Law of Federal Republic of Germany, Article 3(1) — Equality of treatment — Prosecution for espionage of head of intelligence of former German Democratic Republic following German reunification — Whether prosecution violating principle of equality — The law of the Federal Republic of Germany