This chapter establishes the broader contours of politics, conceived as a discrete domain of ethical behaviour. It begins by detailing some paradigmatic instances of political action, organised into two categories: 'direct' and 'indirect'. Next, it examines the relationship between political action and violence, arguing that although individual violent acts might instantiate ethically valuable politics to some degree, truly endemic violence is inimical to politics. Having established this, it turns to the relationship between politics, equality, and inclusion, arguing that politics takes place primarily within geographically demarcated communities and that, as a result, we are justified in prioritising the participation of our compatriots. Finally, this chapter examines the role played by governance institutions within contemporary states, arguing that they fulfil an essential facilitating function. This grants them 'quasi-independent' value as political 'artefacts', 'focuses', and 'forums'. Taken together, these various arguments bridge the conceptual and normative gap between the analysis of the previous chapter and the account of state creation advanced later in the book.

Chapter 3 discusses the phase spanning from the 2000s until the start of the Arab Spring in 2011–2012. It pays particular attention to how activists and communities have come together in pursuit of shared liberal notions and goals, and how they have taken tangible political action and impacted political conduct and affairs. To do so intellectuals and activists moved beyond dogmatic and rigid interpretations in their attempts to re-appropriate, make sense of, and reclaim liberal values. They reintegrated the public masses who became the main focus of activism. And they created public forums, took to the streets, and engaged in open debates about separation of powers, pluralism, and individuality, stressing issues of civil rights and political freedoms and individuals’ right to self-rule. Even leftist thinkers who lost faith in the contentions of the radical era turned to a “liberal-ish” agenda that emphasized liberal rights and freedoms and criticized state monopolies over power and the economy.