Chapter 9 explores the overall risk of cybersecurity and cybersecurity resilience on the African continent. Africa ranks low on the 2018 International Telecommunication Union’s Global Cybersecurity Insecurity and the continent scores lowest of all regions in the five pillars: legal, technical, organizational, capacity building, and cooperation. With the rise of 4IR technologies, the importance of a national infrastructure is critical in evading cyber-attacks. This chapter goes on to explain how cyber disruptions impact different sectors and civil society.

Chapter 2 makes sense of the many reforms passed in the field of economic and fiscal policy over the past decade by conceptualizing them from a governance perspective. Its focus is on the institutional dynamics under the economic pillar and integration techniques mobilized by policy actors. It recalls the centrality of "policy coordination" and finds that in the precrisis era economic coordination was rather loose, horizontal and state-centered, primarily geared towards the pursuit of collective policy goals. It then shows that the Eurocrisis and the COVID-19 crisis have brought the EU and its Member States to largely transcend and reshape this precrisis coordination pattern, leading to its evolution towards a new form of coordination and type of EU intervention in the field of economic policy. This pattern presents the following features. It is more centralized and vertical; no longer confines the Union to a processual role but enables it to meaningfully weigh in on the substance of the policies being coordinated; and is increasingly harmonizing, moving away from the experimentalist philosophy, as it primarily aims at ordering national policies in the economic and social field along the lines of a uniform model.

This introductory chapter conceptualises the absence of universal health care as a policy problem which requires a problem-solving approach if it is to be addressed. It develops the theoretical framing of the book: a policy design approach to health care. The chapter presents five challenges (governance; provision; financing; payment; and setting standards) that governments need to meet in their efforts to achieve universal health care, and the types of policy tools (stewardship and coordination; ownership and management; risk pooling; retrospective and prospective payments; and regulations) available to them. The chapter summarises the core argument around the importance of ownership and management of public hospitals, and the need for regulatory frameworks to manage private providers.

After decades neglect, the Indian government has turned its attention to strengthening the health care system and the country is amidst implementing its most ambitious health care program. The Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY)rolled out in 2019 aims to provide health care coverage to half a billion Indian citizens and offers hope that it will reduce the population’s financial sufferingscaused by illness. The chapter assesses the evolution of the health care system in India and examines the policy tools in use to understand the country’s preparation for achieving its goal. In this chapter, we see that health care system continues to be handicapped by a weak public sector and an inadequately regulated private sector which together form an inhospitable context for publicly financed programs to succeed.

This chapter presents a comparative portrait of the policy tools employed in health care in Asia, the effects they trigger, and how they affect the achievement of universal health coverage. It examines the design and implementation of key health policy tools in China, Hong Kong, India, Korea, Singapore, and Thailand shows improvements along all main dimensions of health policy design. It also points out the continued under-emphasis on regulation of privateproviders, which is especially vital in health systems dominated by private provision and financing.

Analysis in this chapter supports an overall trend of decline in the percentage of polluted days since 2012. Yet, stricter and more centralized policy enforcement measures do not have truly significant, across-the-board effects in reducing pollution in China, and the fall in PM2.5 concentration has not translated into significant and sustained health benefits. The chapter also examines the success and failure of the government in tracking the ongoing targets it set for achieving final policy goals, paying special attention to the following issue areas: reduction of toxic emissions, attacking water pollution, energy, and industrial restructuring, policy coordination, public participation, and the use of market mechanisms. The mixed outcome in addressing air pollution highlights the constraints and flaws of China’s environmental governance model. It also suggests that decades of reform and opening up have not fundamentally changed the impromptu, non-participatory, unaccountable, and mobilizational policy process, which often leads to undesirable and unintended policy outcomes.

After 1985, the UK first assigned a ‘greater importance‘ to exchange rate objectives, without specifying any rule; then followed between early 1987 and March 1988, an unannounced policy of linking the pound to the deutschemark at the rate of 3 DM/£ was pursued. That policy, undertaken without the knowledge of the Prime Minister, eventually led to a sharp political conflict between Thatcher and Lawson. Subsequently, the exchange target was abandoned. All three phases of the new exchange rate regime were conceptually incoherent, and the lack of monetary control in the second half of the 1980s eventually produced not only rapid growth (that looked like a policy success and was termed the ‘Lawson boom‘) but also a new upsurge of inflation that increasingly concerned the Bank. Eddie George emerged not only as a key architect of Bank strategy but also as a favoured interlocutor of Margaret Thatcher. A background to the policy debates was the increased attraction, to the Treasury and to some figures in the Bank, of the European Monetary System as a way of securing the deutschemark as an anchor, and international coordination on exchange rates became more central to monetary policy management; Thatcher and George were critical of that vision.